THE    MULATTO    IN    THE 
UNITED    STATES 


INCLUDING  A  STUDY  OF  THE 
ROLE  OF  MIXED-BLOOD  RACES 
THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


BY 

EDWARD  BYRON  REUTER 


BOSTON 

RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE   GORHAM    PRESS 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY  RICHARD  G.  BADCFH 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

the  social  problems  before  the  American  people  for 
solution,  there  is  none  perhaps  of  more  fundamental 
importance  than  that  created  by  the  presence  of  some  ten 
million  persons  of  a  race  and  color  different  from  that  of 
the  major  part  of  the  country's  population.  The  future  of 
the  nation  is  in  a  degree  conditioned  by  the  treatment  which 
this  race  problem  receives.  Is  the  amalgamation  of  the 
races  in  contact  to  be  regarded  as  an  ideal?  If  so,  there 
remains  the  problem  of  working  out  a  technique  by  means 
of  which  some  degree  of  harmony  and  good  will  can  be 
established  between  the  racial  groups  during  the  period  that 
mongrelization  is  in  progress.  Or  would  the  infusion  of  ten 
per  cent  of  Negro  blood  so  materially  lower  the  ideals  and 
the  intellectual  and  cultural  capacity  of  the  population  as 
to  cause  the  country  to  drop  out  of  the  group  of  culture 
nations?  If  so,  there  is  the  problem  of  checking  the  fusion 
already  in  progress,  as  well  as  the  problem  of  establishing 
some  sort  of  harmonious  working  relations  between  the  races 
while  they  separately  work  out  their  racial  destiny.  In 
regard  to  the  fundamental  question  there  is  as  yet  no  con 
census  of  scholarly  opinion;  the  problem  has  scarcely  been 
attacked  in  a  scholarly  way.  The  more  immediately  prac 
tical  problem  has  as  yet  received  little  intellectual  consider 
ation  :  for  the  most  part  it  still  arouses  emotion  rather  than 
thought. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  social  problem  created  by  the 
presence  of  the  race  in  America  challenges  the  careful  study 
of  scientific  men  and  taxes  the  ingenuity  of  the  statesman 
and  the  administrator,  the  racial  group  itself  presents  the 
richest  field  for  study  of  a  people  in  evolution  of  any  group 

5 


385030 


... 

6  >• :  Preface 

in  the  modern  world.  Every  stage  in  the  social  evolution 
and  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  development  of  a  people 
is  present  in  the  American  Negro  group.  Yet  the  study  of 
the  Negro  and  his  American  environment — his  reaction  and 
responses  to  that  environment  and  the  effect  of  that  reaction 
and  response  on  his  intellectual  growth  and  social  develop 
ment,  as  well  as  the  influence  which  his  presence  and  peculiar 
racial  traits  have  had  in  modifying  or  determining  the 
direction  and  the  degree  of  development  of  American  cus 
toms  and  institutions — has  received  but  a  trifling  amount 
of  attention  from  scholars.  Discussion  of  the  Negro  and 
the  American  race  problem  has  for  the  most  part  been  left 
to  the  doctrinaire  and  the  demagogue,  neither  of  whom  has 
accomplished  much  toward  the  discovery  of  truth,  even 
toward  the  discovery  of  those  relatively  simple  truths  which 
must  be  known  and  acknowledged  before  any  rational  pro 
gram  looking  toward  a  more  harmonious  relation  between 
the  races  can  be  advanced. 

The  following  study  is  not  a  brief  in  behalf  of,  nor  in 
opposition  to,  racial  amalgamation;  yet  it  presents  certain 
of  the  facts  which  must  be  known  before  any  pronouncement 
of  scientific  value  can  be  made  upon  that  subject.  Neither 
is  it  a  study  of  the  race  problem,  in  the  narrow  sense  in 
which  that  phrase  is  popularly  understood,  yet  it  presents 
certain  facts  which  must  be  taken  into  account  in  any  intel 
ligent  dealing  with  that  problem.  The  book  is  an  attempt 
to  state  one  sociological  problem  arising  when  two  races, 
divergent  as  to  culture  and  distinct  as  to  physical  appear 
ance,  are  brought  into  contact  under  the  conditions  of  mod 
ern  life  and  produce  a  hybrid  offspring  whose  characteristic 
physical  appearance  prevents  them  from  passing  as  either 
the  one  or  the  other.  Under  such  conditions  physical 
appearance  becomes  the  basis  for  class,  and  caste  distinc- 


Preface  7 

tions ;  a  biological  phenomenon  gives  rise  to  a  sociological 
problem.  It  is  with  the  sociological  consequences  of  race 
intermixture,  not  with  the  biological  problems  of  the  inter 
mixture  itself,  that  the  present  study  has  to  do.  The 
investigation  proceeds  throughout  on  the  assumption  that 
no  permanent  good  can  accrue  to  the  Negro  people  as  a 
whole  and  that  unfortunate  and  avoidable  discord  in  inter 
racial  relations  is  promoted  by  the  concealment  of  truth  and 
the  denial  of  fact. 

The  writer  takes  this  opportunity  to  acknowledge  his 
indebtedness  to  Dr.  Robert  E.  Park,  at  whose  suggestion  the 
work  was  begun  and  to  whose  friendly  encouragement  and 
generous  criticism  during  the  progress  of  the  investigation 
much  of  the  merit  of  the  study  is  due.  In  no  respect,  how 
ever,  is  Dr.  Park  to  be  considered  responsible  for  any  errors 
of  fact  or  interpretation  which  may  appear  in  the  text.  To 
Dr.  William  I.  Thomas  the  writer  is  indebted — to  mention 
but  one  way — for  mediation  in  publication,  always  a  difficult' 
matter  where  a  study  deviates  either  in  method  or  content 
from  the  strictly  conventional. 

It  was  through  the  courtesy  of  Editor  R.  S.  Abbott  and 
the  other  members  of  the  staff  of  the  Chicago  Defender  that 
the  writer  had  placed  at  his  disposal,  during  the  entire 
period  of  investigation,  some  sixty  odd  of  the  best  and  best 
known  Negro  newspapers.  He  here  acknowledges  his  in 
debtedness  and  expresses  his  appreciation.  Finally  to  a 
large  number  of  other  prominent  Negroes,  who  may  not  here 
be  mentioned  by  name,  the  writer  is  indebted  for  information 
on  many  matters  of  race  sentiment  and  attitude  and 
especially  for  information  concerning  the  racial  ancestry  of 
members  of  their  race.  E.  B.  R. 

Palo  Alto,  California 

February,  1918. 


CONTENTS 


*  PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 11 

II.    MIXED-BLOOD   RACES      .      .      . 2l 

In  Primitive  Times 21 

In   Spain 23 

The  Eurasians    . 26 

The    Eskimos 31 

In  Spanish  America 33 

In  the  Philippines 51 

III.     MIXED-BLOOD  RACES   (concluded) .55 

In   Cuba,    Porto    Rico   and    Santo   Domingo   ....  55 

In    Haiti        . 61 

In  Jamaica  ...» 65 

In  South  Africa 71 

North  American  Indians 77 

THE  MULATTO:  THE  KEY  TO  THE  RACE  PROBLEM      ...  86 

^i^fs   THE  AMOUNT  OF  RACE  INTERMIXTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  105 

VI.     NATURE   OF   RACE    INTERMIXTURE   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES  127 

^C,    Intermarriage 127 

The  Concubinage  of  Colored  Women  by  White  Men       .  139 

— *-v  Unlawful    Polygamy 144 

Intermarriage  with  Indians 155 

>^  Intermixture  During  Slavery  and  at  Present  ....  158 

VII.     THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  MULATTO  CLASS 166 

VIII.    LEADING  MEN  OF  THE  NEGRO  RACE 183 

IX."    THE  HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  NEGRO       .      .      .      .216 

X^.  THE     NEGRO    AND    THE    MULATTO    IN    PROFESSIONAL    AND 

ARTISTIC   PURSUITS 246 

N    XI.    THE  NEGRO  AND  THE  MULATTO  IN  BUSINESS  AND  INDUSTRY    293 

.^,- 

T<XII.    THE  ROLE  OF  THE  MULATTO  IN  THE  INTER-RACIAL  SITUATION  315 

XIII:    THE  ROLE  OF  THE  MULATTO  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES       .       .  338 

VXIV.'    SUMMARY:  PRESENT  TENDENCIES 375 

INDEX  TO  NAMES  OF  MEN  WHOSE  ETHNIC  ANCESTRY  is  AN 
ALYZED .  399 

GENERAL  INDEX     . 413 


THE  MULATTO  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

THE  mulatto,  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  study,  includes 
all  those  members  of  the  Negro  race  with  a  visible  ad 
mixture  of  white  blood.  1  Thus  used,  the  word  is  a  general 
term  to  include  all  Negroes  of  mixed  ancestry  regardless  of 
the  degree  of  intermixture.  It  includes  all  persons  who  are 
recognized,  in  the  communities  in  which  they  live,  as  being 
of  mixed  blood.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  word  is  most 
widely  used  and  best  understood  in  this  country.2 

*The  United  States  Census  Office  has  not  been  consistent  in  its  defini 
tion  of  the  term.  ".  .  .  the  fact  that  the  definition  of  the  term  'mulatto' 
adopted  at  different  censuses  has  not  been  entirely  uniform  may  affect 
the  comparability  of  the  figures  in  some  degree."  In  1870  and  1910, 
however,  the  term  was  applied  to  all  persons  having  any  perceptible  trace 
of  Negro  blood,  excepting,  of  course,  Negroes  of  pure  blood.  In  1850 
and  1860  the  term  seems  not  to  have  been  defined.  In  the  returns  for 
1890  the  Negroes  of  mixed-blood  were  classified  into  mulattoes,  quad 
roons  and  octoroons.  U.  S.  Census  Report  1910:  Population,  Vol.  1,  p. 
129. 

8  "The  offspring,  ...  of  a  negress  by  a  white  man,  or  of  a  white 
woman  by  a  negro;  in  a  more  general  sense,  a  person  of  mixed  Caucasian 
and  negro  blood,  or  Indian  and  negro  blood."  Webster,  International 
Dictionary. 

"Loosely  used  for  any  half-breed  resembling  a  mulatto."  Murray, 
Dictionary. 

11 


12  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Stric%  defined,  ihe  word  designates  the  first  generation 
of  hybridization  between  the  Negro  and  the  Caucasian 
races.3  The  hybrid  may  be  the  offspring  of  a  white  father 
and  a  Negro  mother  or  the  child  of  a  Negro  father  and  a 
white  mother.  Both  ancestral  elements,  however,  must  be 
of  racially  pure  lineage  else  the  offspring  resulting  from  the 
union  will  not  be  a  first  generation  hybrid  and  hence  not  a 
mulatto  in  the  biological  sense.4  The  word  thus  delimited 
becomes  a  biological  concept  unavailable  for  use  except  in  a 
technical,  biological  sense.  It  designates  a  particular  and 
scientifically  interesting  but  relatively  infrequent  type  of  hu 
man  hybrid.  It  is,  in  this  usage,  coordinate  with  the  words 
mango,  sambo,  quadroon,  octoroon,  mustifee  and  the  like  5 

8  In  its  derivation  the  word  is  from  the  Spanish  mulato,  the  diminutive 
of  mulo,  a  mule.  So  mulato  is  literally  a  young  mule — so  called  because 
of  hybrid  origin.  Century  Dictionary. 

4  The  first  cross,  for  example,  between  the  Negroes  and  the  North 
European  races  gives  a  mulatto  in  the  true  and  accurate  biological  sense. 
The  offspring  shows  definite  predicable  physical  characteristics.  This  is 
not  true  in  the  case  of  crossings  between  the  Mediterranean  peoples  and 
the  Negro.  The  offspring  here  may  show  in  the  first  generation  the 
variability  that  appears  in  the  second  generation  cross  of  North  Euro 
pean  and  Negro.  The  ancient  intermixture  of  black  blood  in  the  South 
European  peoples  makes  the  effect  of  their  crossing  with  the  Negro  that 
of  the  crossing  of  a  pure  and  a  hybrid  race. 

"Olmsted,  writing  about  1854,  states  that  the  French  of  the  Southern 
States  classify  the  colored  people,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  pre 
ponderance  of  Negro  blood,  as  follows: 

Sacatra griffe  and  negress 

Griffe Negro  and  mulatto 

Marabon mulatto  and  griffe 

Mulatto .white  and  Negro 

Quadroon white  and  mulatto 

Metif (White  and  Quadroon 

Meamelouc Avhite  and  metif 

Quarteron swnite  and  meamelouc 

Sang-mele white  and  quarteron 

Frederick  Law  Olmsted,  A  Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  p.  583. 


Introduction  13 

each  of  which  connotes  a  specificHtype  of  racial  cross.6 

But  for  purposes  of  sociological  study  it  is  the  mixed 
group  as  a  whole,  not  the  degree  of  hybridization  nor  the 
particular  types  of  hybrid,  that  is  of  prime  importance.  So 

Davenport  gives  the  following  classification: 

Mulatto Negro  and  white 

Quadroon mulatto  and  white 

Octoroon quadroon  and  white 

Cascos .mulatto  and  mulatto 

Sambo mulatto  and  Negro 

Mango .sambo  and  Negro 

Mustifec; octoroon  and  white 

Mustifino mustifee  and  white 

C.  B.  Davenport,  Heredity  of  Skin  Color  in  Negro-White  Crosses,  p.  27. 

"The  mulatto,  of  course,  differs  in  certain  marked  ways  from  other 
types  of  intermixture.  He  is  the  product  of  the  cross  between  pure  races 
and,  like  all  first  generation  hybrids,  shows  an  unvarying  uniformity  and 
a  universal  instability  of  physical  type.  The  Negro  characters  are  al 
ways  dominant  and  appear  prominently;  the  Caucasian  characters  are 
recessive  and  for  the  most  part  remain  concealed.  It  is  possible  to  pre 
dict  with  scientific  certainty  the  characters  that  will  appear  in  the  first 
generation  hybrid. 

In  the  second  and  subsequent  generations  the  Caucasian  and  Negroid 
characters  combined  in  the  mulatto,  i.e.,  the  first  generation  hybrid,  seg 
regate  in  almost  infinitely  variable  ways.  Individuals  appear  with  the 
typical  characters — skin  color,  hair  color,  hair  length,  eye  color,  body 
odor  and  the  like — redistributed  in  endless  new  combinations.  Indi 
viduals  appear  with  light  skin  and  tufted  hair,  black  skin  and  blue  eyes, 
with  dark  skin  and  lank  hair,  with  fair  skin  and  light  but  curly  hair, 
with  the  skin  coloration  and  hair  formation  of  the  white  man  and  the 
body  odor  of  the  Negro;  so  with  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  other 
human  characters.  The  uniformity  of  the  first  generation  hybrid  be 
comes  an  almost  infinite  variety  as  further  generations  appear. 

But  however  wide  the  variations,  however  numerous  the  varieties,  the 
mixed  race  can  never  become,  biologically,  either  Negro  or  white.  Inter 
breeding  or  further  crossing  produces  new  hybrids.  No  amount  of  inter 
breeding  or  of  crossing  can  ever  produce  a  white  man  or  a  Negro  from 
a  hybrid  ancestry.  The  hybrid  individual  is  a  biologically  unstable  type 
and  he  and  his  descendants  remain  hybrid  and  physically  unstable  to 
the  extermination  of  the  group. 


14  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

if  the  biological  terminology  be  adhered  to,  it  becomes  neces 
sary  to  adopt  some  other  term  to  include  all  individuals  of 
mixed  ancestry.  No  term  more  satisfactory  than  mulatto 
has  been  suggested.  The  word  coloured  is  used  in  this  sense 
in  the  English  publications,  but,  as  this  word  is  widely  used 
in  the  United  States  as  synonymous  with  Negro,  it  is  not 
available  here.  The  term  mulatto  will  therefore  be  used  in 
the  following  pages  in  its  more  general  and  popular  sense 
as  defined  above.  When  it  is  used  in  the  more  restricted 
sense  to  designate  the  first  generation  offspring  of  a  Negro- 
white  cross,  the  fact  will  be  so  indicated. 

The  mulatto,  then,  is  a  man  of  mixed  blood.  But  it  is  not 
that  alone  that^  makes  the  mulatto  a  matter  of  sociological 
importance.  Mixture  of  blood  is  a  characteristic  of  all 
races.7 

Man  always  has  been  a  restless  animal  moving  to  and  fro 
in  search  of  food  or  adventure,  to  escape  his  enemies  or 
merely  in  response  to  a  nomadic  impulse.  Ratzel,8  speaking 
of  the  "innumerable  wanderings"  of  certain  Pacific  primitive 
peoples,  says  that  this  should  not  be  considered  as  an  excep 
tion  but  rather  as  the  rule,  "for  none  of  these  races  was  ever 
at  rest."  Again  he  says  9  that  "It  would  hardly  be  possible 

T  The  term  "race"  is  to  be  understood  in  its  popular  rather  than  in  its 
ethnological  sense.  Ethnologically  it  means  a  human  group  which  owes 
its  distinctive  traits  to  the  selective  forces  of  nature  acting  upon  biologi 
cal  mutation  and  which  invariably  breeds  true  to  type.  As  used  here  it 
refers  to  peoples  rather  than  to  biological  races.  Practically  all  the 
present  day  races  are  the  products  of  intermixture  in  varying  degrees 
of  previously  more  or  less  well  established  types,  and  the  adaptation  of 
the  hybridized  stock  to  the  special  environment.  For  the  purpose  in 
hand  we  are  not  concerned  with  race  as  a  physical  concept  but  with  race 
as  a  social  unity  which  arises  by  and  through  social  development. 

"Friedrich  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  English  Translation  by 
A.  J.  Butler,  Vol.  I,  p.  174. 

9  Ibid.,  Vol.  I,  p.  446.     Speaking  here  of  the  Malays. 


Introduction  15 

to  name  a  race,  however  small,  the  traditions  of  which  are 
not  based  upon  a  migration." 

Migrations  brought  contacts  with  new  and  strange  peo 
ples  resulting,  in  some  cases,  in  an  intermingling  of  blood, 
which,  combined  with  environmental  adaptation,  produced 
modified  racial  types.  Johnston  10  summarizes  the  early  mix 
ture  of  races  in  these  words : 

.  .  .  Ever  since  the  existing  human  species  diverged 
into  its  four  or  five  existing  varieties  or  sub-species, 
there  has  been  a  constant  opposite  movement  at  work 
to  unify  the  type.  Whites  have  returned  southwards 
and  mingled  with  Australoids,  Australoids  have  united 
with  Negroids,  and  produced  Melanesians,  and  Papu 
ans,  and  these,  again,  have  mixed  with  proto-Cauca- 
sians  or  with  Mongols  to  form  the  Polynesian.  The 
earliest  types  of  White  man  have  mingled  with  the  prim 
itive  Mongol,  or  directly  with  the  primitive  Negro. 
There  is  an  ancient  Negroid  strain  underlying  the  pop 
ulations  of  Southern  and  Western  France,  Italy,  Sicily, 
Corsica,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Portugal,  Ireland,  Wales  and 
Scotland.  Evidences  of  the  former  existence  of  these 
negroid  people  are  not  only  to  be  found  in  the  features 
of  their  mixed  descendants  at  the  present  day,  but  the 
fact  is  attested  by  skulls,  skeletons,  and  works  of  art 
of  more  or  less  great  antiquity  in  France,  Italy,  etc., 
....  There  are  few  Negro  peoples  at  the  present  day 
— perhaps  only  the  Bushmen,  the  Congo-Pigmies,  and 
a  few  tribes  of  forest  Negroes — which  can  be  said  to 
be  without  more  or  less  trace  of  ancient  White  inter 
mixture. 

Old  races  have  been  constantly  broken  up  and  new  ones 
formed  from  the  fragments.11  Powerful  groups  have  con 
quered  smaller  groups  or  imposed  themselves  as  a  ruling 

10  Sir    Harry    H.    Johnston,    "Racial    Problems    and    the   Congress    of 
Races,"  Contemporary  Review,  Vol.  100,  pp.  159-60. 

11  Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  I,  p.  129. 


16  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

class  on  weaker  but  more  numerous  peoples  and  absorbed  or 
been  absorbed  by  the  conquered  group.  No  primitive  group 
has  remained  long  in  the  form  peculiar  to  it ;  all  were  being 
constantly  modified  by  the  fusion  with  other  types.12 

Reinsch  13  shows  that  in  modern  times  the  intermixture  of 
races  has  been  greatly  increased   as  a  result  of  the   great 
advance  in  the  safety  and  rapidity  of  communication  which 
made  possible  the  contact  in  large  numbers  of  races  hereto 
fore  far  distant  from  each  other.    At  the  present  time  there  >> 
are  no  pure  races  in  Europe  14  and  few  of  any  consequence  X 
elsewhere  in  the  world.15 

If  the  attention  be  turned  from  races  to  the  composition 
of  nationalities  the  mixture  of  blood  is  even  more  apparent. 
European  nations,  without  exception,  are  a  medley  of  im 
perfectly  blended  types. 

.  .  .  The  modern  Italian,  Frenchman,  and  German  is 
a  composite  of  the  broken  fragments  of  several  differ 
ent  racial  groups.  Interbreeding  has  broken  up  the 
ancient  stocks,  and  interaction  and  imitation  have  cre 
ated  new  national  types  which  exhibit  definite  uniformi 
ties  in  language,  manners  and  formal  behavior.18 

Mayo-Smith  17  says  that  "There  has  never  been  a  state 
whose  population  was  not  made  up  of  heterogeneous  ethnical 

"Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  I,  p.  395. 

"Paul  S.  Reinsch,  "The  Negro  Race  and  European  Civilization," 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  11,  p.  145. 

"William  Z.  Ripley,  The  Races  of  Europe,  pp.  109-10,  597  if. 
Edward  Westermarck,  The  History  of  Human  Marriage,  pp.  282  f. 

"The  mixtures  are,  of  course,  generally  of  nearly  allied  races.  They 
are  rather  mixtures  within  a  single  race,  as  the  different  groups  of  the 
white  race  or  different  tribes  of  the  Negro  race,  than  between  races. 

18  R.  E.  Park,  "Racial  Assimilation  in  Secondary  Groups,"  Publications 
of  the  Sociological  Society,  Vol.  8,  p.  66. 

"  Richmond  Mayo-Smith,  "Theories  of  Mixture  of  Races  and  Nation 
alities,"  Yale  Review,  Vol.  3,  p.  175. 


Introduction  17 

elements,"  while  Luschan  would  even  have  it  that  the  ad 
vance  of  civilization  is  dependent  upon  this  process  of  racial 

intermixture.     He  says : 1J 

r 

We  all  know  that  a  certain  admixture  of  blood  has 
always  been  of  great  advantage  to  a  nation.  Eng 
land,  France,  and  Germany  are  equally  distinguished 
for  the  great  variety  of  their  racial  elements.  In  the 
case  of  Italy  we  know  that  in  ancient  times  and  at  the 
Renaissance  Northern  "Barbarians"  were  the  leaven 
in  the  great  advance  of  art  and  civilisation;  and  even 
Slavonic  immigration  has  certainly  not  been  without 
effect  on  this  movement.  The  marvellous  ancient  civil 
isation  of  Crete,  again,  seems  to  have  been  not  quite 
autochthonous.  We  know  also  that  the  ancient  Baby 
lonian  civilisation  sprang  from  a  mixture  of  two  quite 
different  national  and  racial  elements,  and  we  find  a 
nearly  homogeneous  population  in  most  parts  of  Rus 
sia,  and  in  the  interior  of  China  associated  with  a  some 
what  low  stage  of  evolution. 

Normally  the  intermixture  of  the  diverse  racial  elements 
of  a  population,  especially  in  a  cosmopolitan  situation,  goes 
on  without  arousing  comment  or  opposition.  Except  in  a 
pathological  situation,  it  does  not  become  a  social  problem. 
Rather,  it  tends  toward  the  elimination  of  any  problem  that 
the  presence  of  the  unassimilated  alien  element  may  have 
created.  Any  distinguishing  racial  marks  which  the  parents 
may  have  borne  are  partly  effaced  in  their  mixed  offspring. 
Superficially  at  least,  the  mixed-blood  individuals  are  like 
all  other  members  of  the  community  in  that  they  generally 
bear  no  obvious  marks  of  their  origin. 

It  is  not,  then,  the  mere  fact  of  a  mixed  ancestry  that 
makes  the  mulatto  a  problem  in  the  community  and  an  ob- 

18  Felix  von  Luschan,  "Anthropological  View  -of  Race,"  Inter-Racial 
Problems,  pp.  22-3. 


18  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ject  of  sociological  interest.     But  when  the  crossing  of  races 
!  produces  an  offspring  readily  distinguishable  from  both  the 
.1  parent  races  of  which  it  is  a  mixture,  the  situation  may  be- 
I  come  the  basis  for  class  distinctions ;  the  bi-racial  ancestry 
(of  the  individual  may  determine  his  status  in  the  community. 
This  would  seem  to  be  true  especially  in  those  cases  where 
there  already  exists  a  condition  of  racial  ill-will,  of  jealousy 
or  hatred  between   the  groups   in  contact;   where  the   two 
groups  are  on  different  cultural  levels,  and  where  the  dis 
tinctive  appearance  of  the  lower  19  race  gives  a  hold  around 
which  prejudice  may  crystallize.20 

This  race  problem,  that  is,  the  problem  of  arriving  at  and 
maintaining  mutually  satisfactory  working  relations  be 
tween  the  members  of  two  non-assimilable  groups  which  oc 
cupy  the  same  territory,  is  primarily  a  matter  of  difference 
of  physical  appearance.21  The  color,  or  other  racial  marks, 
of  one  race  may  come  to  be  a  symbol  of  its  inferior  culture 
and  so  come  to  stand,  in  the  thinking  of  the  culturally  supe 
rior  group,  for  poverty,  disease,  dirt,  ignorance,  and  all  the 
undesirable  concomitants  of  a  backward  race.  It  is  this 
that  makes  it  impossible  for  individuals  to  escape  the  status 
of  the  lower  group.  Any  person  bearing  the  physical  marks 
of  the  lower  group  is  assumed  to  embody  the  traits  that  arc 
supposed  to  be  typical  of  the  lower  race.  The  individual 
cannot  pass  in  the  opposite  group  on  his  merits  as  an  indi- 

19  The  terms  "lower,"  "backward,"  etc.,  do  not  assume  anything  and  do 
not   prejudice   anything   biological   or    fundamental.     They    are   purely 
cultural  designations.     A   backward   race  is   one   backward   in   culture. 
"Race  as  such  has   nothing  to  do  with  the  possession  of  civilization." 
Yet,  "It  would  be  silly  to  deny  that  in  our  time  the  highest  civilization 
has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Caucasian,  or  white  race."    Ratzel,  History 
of  Mankind,  Vol.  I,  p.  20. 

20  Mayo-Smith,   Yale  Review,  Vol.  3,  p.  185. 

91  Compare,  T.  P.  Bailey,  Race  Orthodoxy  in  the  South  pp.  40  ff. 


Introduction  19 

vidual,  but  must  pass  as  a  member  of  the  opposite  race. 

The  half-castes  who  appear  in  such  a  situation  are  an 
easily  distinguishable  physical  variety.  This  characteristic 
physical  appearance  classifies  them ;  it  separates  them  from 
both  groups  and  makes  them  alien  in  both.  It  makes  it  im-  . 
possible  for  them  to  escape  the  stigma  which  attaches  itself 
to  a  tainted  ancestry.  The  half-caste  individual  cannot, 
therefore,  be  a  mere  individual ;  he  is  inevitably  the  represen 
tative  of  a  type.  He  is  not  merely  a  biological  product ;  he 
is  a  sociological  phenomenon. 

,  Under  such  conditions,  the  half-castes  tend  to  develop 
jpeculiar  mental  traits  and  attitudes  which  are  not  racial  but 
are  determined  by  the  social  situation  in  which  they  find 
themselves.  To  the  extent  that  this  takes  place,  the  differ 
ences  that  normally  exist  between  individuals  are  suppressed 
and  the  mental  and  moral  characteristics  of  the  group  ap 
proach  uniformity.  In  a  word,  they  tend  to  form  a  distinct 
class  or  caste  in  the  community  and  one  based  fundamentally 
on  physical  appearance. 

The  problem  of  the  mulatto,  then,  is  not  something  unique 
and  local:  it  is  the  problem  of  the  mixed-blood  wherever 
blood  has  been  made  the  basis  of  caste.  It  seems  desirable, 
therefore,  before  coming  to  the  specific  and  detailed  study 
of  the  mulatto  in  the  United  States  and  as  a  preliminary 
to  that  study,  to  pass  in  review  the  chief  mixed-blood  races 
that  have  appeared  in  other  countries  as  a  result  of  the  con 
tact  of  advanced  and  backward  races  and  have  constituted 
distinct  types  and  distinct  problems  in  other  situations.  It 
is  actually  to  determine  to  what  extent  they  have  arisen 
under  similar  social  situations,  or  what  the  situations  are 
under  which  they  have  arisen;  to  determine  to  what  extent 
they  have  developed  the  same  type  of  mind  in  different 
groups,  or  what  the  types  of  mind  are  if  they  differ;  and  to 


20  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

see  what  are  the  reactions  they  have  made  to  the  different 
social  and  racial  environments;  what  accommodation  they 
have  made  or  caused  to  be  made  in  the  different  social  situ 
ations  in  which  they  have  been  placed,  that  a  summary  of  the 
origin  and  development,  the  psychological  condition  and  the 
social  status  of  the  chief  of  these  mixed-blood  races  is  here 
given.  Such  a  survey  will  furnish  a  necessary  background 
to  an  understanding  of  the  mulatto  situation  in  the  United 
States.  It  will  serve  to  put  in  proper  perspective  what 
might  otherwise  appear  to  be  a  detached  and  an  isolated 
phenomenon. 


CHAPTER  II 

MIXED-BLOOD    RACES 

In  Primitive  Times 

AMONG  primitive  peoples,  a  mixed-blood  race  as  a 
separate  caste  or  class  in  the  community  seems  no 
where  to  have  existed.  Primitive  peoples,  especially  those 
near  enough  together  geographically  to  come  into  contact 
with  each  other,  did  not  differ  very  widely.  The  various 
culture  stages  were  not  markedly  different  and  the  ethno 
logical  contrasts  were  not  generally  such  as  distinguish  one 
group  sharply  from  another.  Where  exogamy  existed,  it 
was  between  related  groups.  Moreover,  where  two  races 
were  on  sufficiently  friendly  terms  for  intermarriage  to  take 
place  between  them,  there  seems  to  be  little  reason  to  sup 
pose  that  the  appearance  of  mixed-blood  offspring  would 
cause  a  social  problem.  Strange  groups  were  mutually 
exclusive  groups  with  a  state  of  potential  warfare  always 
existing  among  them.  Where  there  was  intermixture  it  was 
the  blending  of  a  conquering  with  a  conquered  group  to  pro 
duce  a  single  mixed-blood  group.1 

In  numberless  instances,  the  ruling  classes  were  of  an 
origin  different  from  that  of  their  subjects.  But  the  con 
quering  and  the  conquered  groups  very  soon  became  bound 
together  by  ties  of  interest.2  Pride  of  race  was  but  a  feeble 

3  See  Franz  Oppenheimer,   The  State;  Its  History  and  Development 
Viewed  Sociologically.    Translation  by  J.  M.  Gitterman,  pp.  60  if. 
'See  F.  Stuart  Chapin,  Social  Evolution,  pp.  201  ff. 
Friedrich  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  2,  pp.  165-66. 

21 


22  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

sentiment,  if  indeed,  it  existed  at  all.  The  prestige  of  the 
ruling  class  attracted  the  maidens  of  the  conquered  race, 
and  the  choicest  of  these  became  the  auxiliary  wives  of  the 
conquerors.  But  the  mixed-bloods  produced,  did  not  form  a 
separate  caste.  The  primitive  state  noAvhere  possessed  the 
cohesive  strength  to  withstand  for  long  the  disorganizing 
force  of  a  mixed-blood  caste.  It  would  lead  quickly  to  a 
dissolution  of  the  group  though  there  seems  no  adequate 
ground  for  assuming  that  the  incessant  decay  and  reorgani 
zation  of  primitive  tribes  was  anywhere  due  to  this  cause. 
The  mixed-bloods  were  seldom  an  outstanding  physical  type. 
Their  appearance  in  the  situation  tended  to  bind  yet  more 
intimately  together  the  conquerors  and  their  subjects. 
Their  production  was  the  first  step  toward  a  new  racial 
homogeneity.3 

In  the  ancient  world,  contacts  seem  nowhere  to  have  re 
sulted  in  the  production  of  a  mixed-blood  race  with  a  dis 
tinct  social  and  psychological  status.4  The  Phoenicians, 
interested  above  all  else  in  material  prosperity,  sacrificed 
every  national  and  racial  trait  that  interfered  with  their 
commercial  prosperity.  Their  colonies  very  soon  lost  their 
national  character  through  a  fusing  with  their  ethnic  en 
vironment.5  The  Greeks  with  a  stronger  sense  of  nationality 
than  the  Phoenicians,  better  maintained  their  national  iden 
tity.  Their  colonists  felt  strongly  the  distinctions  between 
themselves  and  the  barbarians,  and  so  kept  themselves  free 
from  any  large-scale  miscegenation  with  the  natives.  "The 

8  In  Africa  there  are,  in  general,  two  regions  of  pure  Negro  and  two 
regions  of  Caucasian-Negro  mixed-blood  races.  See  Ratzel,  The  His 
tory  of  Mankind,  Vol.  2,  pp.  245  ff.,  257.  A  map  showing  the  mixed- 
blood  races  of  North  and  East  Africa  is  given  in  Vol.  2,  pp.  336-37. 

*  See  G.  Elliot  Smith,  "The  Influence  of  Racial  Admixture  in  Egypt," 
Eugenics  Review,  Vol.  7,  pp.  163-83. 

8  A.  G.  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  35,. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  23 

barbarians  became  Greek  less  through  contact  with  Greek 
settlements  than  through  the  dissemination  of  the  Greek 
tongue  and  culture — they  became  Greek  by  adoption,  not 
by  the  infusion  of  Greek  blood."  6  The  Romans  mixed,  no 
doubt,  with  their  subject  peoples,  but  there  was  on  the  part 
of  these  peoples,  no  very  clearly  defined  sentiment  of  race 
diversity.  The  Romans  were  not  looked  upon  as  enemies 
of  the  race.  There  was  no  sentiment  of  nationality ;  as  for 
the  state,  it  simply  did  not  exist.  All  was  disorder  and 
continual  struggle  between  petty  groups.  There  existed  no 
very  marked  outstanding  external  differences  that  would 
serve  as  a  basis  for  race  separation  and  discrimination.7 
Keller 8  speaking  of  the  Gauls  remarks  upon  "the  absence 
of  wide  racial  diversity  in  these  ancient  times."  He  adds:9 

".  .  .  The  superiorities  of  Roman  ideas  and  systems 
were  self-evident  because  the  grades  of  civilization 
were  not  so  distant  one  from  another  as  to  prevent 
easy  passage  from  the  lower  to  the  higher.  This  was 
particularly  noteworthy  in  respect  to  Gaul,  but  not 
untrue  in  the  case  of  other  lands." 

In  Spam 

In  Spain  there  has  always  been  much  intermixture  of  the 
blood  of  different  ethnic  stocks  but  no  purely  racial  problem 
or  distinctive  half-caste  population.  The  Phoenicians  fused 
with  the  Iberians  who  were  already  modified  by  intermixture 

'Ibid.,  p.  48. 

T".  .  .  The  contrast  between  the  culture  represented  by  the  modern 
white  and  that  of  primitive  man  is  far  more  fundamental  than  that 
between  the  ancients  and  the  peoples  with  whom  they  came  in  contact. 
.  .  ."  Franz  Boaz,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  p.  12. 

'Colonization,  p.  59. 

•  Ibid.,  pp.  59-60. 


24  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

with  the  Celts.10  Following  the  Phoenicians,  the  peninsula 
was  overrun  successively  by  the  Carthaginians,  the  Romans, 
the  Visigoths,  the  Vandals  and  finally  by  the  Arabs  and  the 
Moors.11  In  addition  to  these  there  was  a  large  infusion  of 
Jewish  blood  and,  with  the  Moors,  came  some  admixture  of 
the  Negroid.12  In  spite,  however,  of  this  extensive  mixing 
of  blood,  there  was  little  alteration  in  the  original  type.13 
Most  of  the  invaders,  like  the  original  stock,  were  dolichoce 
phalic,  short  of  stature  and  dark  of  skin  and  hair  and  eyes. 
The  stages  of  culture  were  not  widely  contrasted.  Class 
distinction  between  noble  and  not-noble,  between  town  and 
countryman  were  everywhere  rigidly  drawn.  There  was 
little  to  create  a  permanent  racial  problem  and  there  was 
no  emergence  of  a  half-caste  group.  The  persecution  of 
the  Moris coes  after  the  fall  of  the  Moorish  Empire  was  not 
primarily,  nor  even  largely,  racial.  During  the  flourishing 
period  of  the  Moorish  Empire,  the  line  of  demarcation  be 
tween  the  races  was  but  faintly  drawn.14  "Openly,  at  least, 
they  did  not  consider  each  other  as  enemies."15  Intermar 
riages  were  frequent  especially  those  of  Spanish  women  u 
with  the  men  of  the  dominant  group.  Intermarriage  was, 
however,  contrary  to  the  policy  of  Islam  and  such  alliances 

10Appleton's  Encyclopedia:  Spain. 

"  New  International  Encyclopaedia:   Spain. 

12  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  "The  World-Position  of  the  Negro  and 
Negroid,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  330.  The  Moors  of  course  are  mem 
bers  of  the  white  race  though  much  mixed.  They  have  "more  Arab 
than  Berber  blood."  Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Moors. 

13 New  International  Encyclopaedia:  Spain. 

14  S.  P.  Scott,  History  of  the  Moorish  Empire  in  Europe,  Vol.  3,  p.  197. 

"Ibid.,  Vol.  3,   p.   197. 

19 ".  .  .  The  harems  of  the  Moslems  were  filled  with  Christian  maidens 
who  had,  without  hesitancy  or  compensation,  renounced  the  faith  of  their 
fathers."  Ibid.f  Vol.  3,  p.  200. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  85 

were  discouraged  17  although  no  stigma  attached  to  either 
party  of  such  union.  It  was,  however,  this  attitude  on  the 
part  of  the  Arabs  that  was  chiefly  responsible  in  prevent 
ing  a  complete  amalgamation  of  the  races.  With  the  de 
cline  of  the  Moorish  Empire  and  more  especially  with  the 
rise  of  the  Castilian  power  in  Spain,  an  antipathy  grew  up 
between  the  races.  The  latent  or  repressed  feeling  gradu 
ally  grew  into  an  open  hostility.  The  prejudice  was  sedu 
lously  nourished  until  the  Spanish  came  to  consider  the 
Moors  as  their  hereditary  18  and  implacable  enemy.  The}7 
asserted  the  superiority  of  their  race  and  considered  their 
enemies  as  barbarians  in  spite  of  the  wide  and  obvious  supe 
riority  of  the  latter  in  knowledge  and  culture.  The  smallest 
drop  of  Moorish  blood  became  a  taint,  that  nothing  could 
remove.19  But  behind  this  hostile  attitude,  was  the  Church 
and  the  impoverished  condition  of  the  national  treasury.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  Spain  subordinated  everything  to  the 
Church ;  20  she  sacrificed  everything  to  the  idea  of  religious 
unity.  Moreover,  the  Moriscoes  were  industrious  and  fru 
gal;  they  were  prosperous  and  wealthy.  The  Castilian  sub 
sisted  by  rapine.  The  wealth  of  the  Moriscoes  attracted  the 
cupidity  of  the  authorities.21  Like  the  Jews  of  a  previous 
period,  their  wealth  brought  upon  them  the  suspicion  of 
heresy.22  The  institution  of  the  Inquisition  was  put  into 
operation  against  the  inoffensive  and  prosperous  class,23 

17  Ibid.,  Vol.  3,  p.  212. 

"Ibid.,  Vol.  3,  p.  199. 

""A  taint  of  Moorish  blood  was  sufficient  to  prevent  the  holding  of 
any  public  office,  even  in  the  smallest  municipality."  Chambers'  Ency 
clopaedia:  Spain.  See,  also,  Scott,  History  of  the  Moorish  Empire,  Vol. 
3,  p.  224. 

30  Ibid.,  Vol.  3,  p.  304. 

*Ibid.,  Vol.  3,  p.  245. 

»/6W.,  Vol.  3,  p.  226. 

"I6W.,  Vol.  3,  p.  260. 


26  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

and  the  persecution  ended  only  with  their  final  expulsion. 
The  persecution,  however,  was  a  religious  festival;  it  was 
only  incidentally  racial. 

The  Eurasians 

The  mixture  of  races  is  by  no  means  a  modern  phenome 
non,  but  it  is  only  within  recent  centuries  that  the  half- 
breed  appears  as  a  psychological  type  and  as  a  social  prob 
lem.  Keller,  placing  the  emphasis  on  the  more  tolerant 
attitude  of  the  culture  races  and  the  absence  of  wide  cultural 
or  ethnical  differences  of  the  races  in  contact,  summarizes 
the  situation  as  follows :  24 

For  similar  reasons  the  "native  policy"  of  ancient 
times  was  constructed  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  ex 
change,  or  was  directed  simply  toward  the  maintenance 
of  such  subordination  and  order  as  a  wider  administra 
tive  experience  had  proved  to  be  socially  beneficial,  if 
not  indispensable.  There  was  no  idea  of  "culture-mis 
sion"  or  the  like,  and  consequently  no  dogma,  ...  of 
"assimilation."  No  moral  or  religious  crusades  were 
carried  on  through  the  colonies;  diversity  of  customs 
and  morals  was  regarded  as  natural  and  a  matter  of 
course, — though  both  customs  and  religions  were  na 
tionally  less  differentiated  than  they  have  come  to  be 
in  the  eyes  of  later  ages.  The  predominant  commer 
cial  motive,  and  the  imperial  policy  as  well,  counseled 
respect  for  the  social  forms  of  an  alien  people;  .  .  . 
between  the  races  that  were  brought  into  contact,  es 
pecially  around  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  there 
existed  few  contrasts  of  any  significance.  The  like  was 
time  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese  and  their  ethnic  envi 
ronment.  There  was  no  obvious  ethnological  differ 
ences  such  as  distinguish  one  race  sharply  from  an 
other,  and  the  various  stages  of  culture  were  separated 

34  Colonization,  pp.  76-77. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  27 

by  no  impassable  or  discouraging  chasms.  .  .  .  Even 
slavery  was  an  institution  totally  different  from  that 
with  which  later  ages  have  made  us  familiar:  there  was 
no  "color-line";  the  system  was  one  of  "domestic  sla 
very"  in  the  main;  and  the  passage  from  freedom  to 
servitude  was  easy.  .  .  .  Hence  that  eternally  vex 
atious  and  unsolved  question  of  the  treatment  of  a 
"lower  race"  was  but  faintly  represented.  .  .  .  [With 
these  colonies]  instead  of  native  wars  and  annihilation, 
an  auspicious  large-scale  miscegenation,  mainly  of 
closely  allied  races,  took  place,  ...  no  such  barriers 
to  intermarriage  existed  as  appeared  in  later  times, 
when  racial  distinctions  were  more  marked.  .  .  . 

It  was  the  mass  meeting  of  the  cultured  and  primitive 
peoples,  brought  about  as  a  result  of  the  period  of  the  dis 
coveries,  that  gave  rise  to  the  mixed-blood  races  with  a 
status  different  in  some  respects  from  that  of  either  of  the 
parent  races;  and  so  gave  rise,  in  some  cases  at  least,  to 
special  social  and  racial  problems. 

Chief  among  these  mixed-blood  races  are  the  "Eurasians," 
a  mixture  of  Hindu  and  European  living  in  the  port  cities 
of  India;  the  mixed-blood  race  of  Eskimo-Dane  living  off 
the  West  Coast  of  Greenland;  the  so-called  "coloured  peo 
ples"  of  South  Africa,  a  mixed-blood  race  of  complicated 
ancestry ;  the  metis  of  Brazil,  a  mixture  of  Portuguese  with 
Amerindian  and  Negro;  the  mestizo,  a  mixture  with  varying 
proportions  of  Spanish  and  Indian  blood  found  in  most 
parts  of  South  and  Central  America;  the  Spanish  mulatto 
in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico ;  the  "coloured  people"  and  "whites 
by  law"  in  Jamaica ;  the  Spanish  mestizo  and  the  Chinese 
mestizo  in  the  Philippines;  and  the  mulatto  in  the  United 
States.  In  lesser  numbers,  are  the  English-Eskimo  mix 
tures  on  the  Newfoundland  Coast;  the  European  and  Ori 
ental  mixtures  in  the  port  cities  of  China  and  Japan ;  half- 


28  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

caste  Arabs  in  East  Central  Africa;  various  mixtures  of 
Indian-White,  Indian-Negro  and  Indian-Negro-White  in 
the  United  States;  French-Indian  mixtures  in  Canada;  and 
a  great  variety  of  other  mixtures  in  various  regions  but  in 
lesser  numbers  or  forming  less  acute  problems. 

The  Eurasians  or  Indo-Europeans  are  a  people  of  mixed 
European  and  Asiatic  blood  born  and  raised  in  Asia.  This 
population  had  its  origin  in  the  miscegenation  of  Hindu 
women  with  the  early  Portuguese  traders  and  resident  Por 
tuguese.  There  was  never  any  considerable  immigration  of 
Portuguese  women  into  India  and  illicit  relations  with  the 
native  women  were  common.25  The  Portuguese,  accustomed 
to  such  mixed  unions  in  their  home  country,  had  no  racial 
repugnance  to  overcome.26  The  policy  was  fostered  by  the 
Portuguese  governors ;  Albuquerque  himself  was  the  father 
of  a  mulatto  son.27  But  the  effort  to  build  up  a  half-caste 
group  was  only  partially  successful.  The  mongrel  type,  in 
the  absence  of  a  regular  infusion  of  Portuguese  blood,  failed 
to  hold  its  own.  It  has  now  pretty  thoroughly  reverted  to 
the  native  type.28  Perhaps  a  half  million  of  the  population 
show  traces  of  this  early  hybridization,  but  they  are  dis 
tinguishable  from  the  natives  mainly  by  virtue  of  a  distinc 
tive  dress.29 

With  the  coming  of  the  English  into  India,  there  was  a 
new  intermixture  of  European  and  Indian  blood.  Concubin- 

a  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  122. 

*Ibid.,  p.  104. 

27  Ibid.,  p.  122. 

28 ".  .  .  The  Portuguese  have  left  behind  a  monument  of  their  Indian 
dominion  in  a  very  numerous  race  of  half-breeds,  .  .  .  They  enter  largely 
into  domestic  service  and  in  Bombay  all  the  best  cooks  and  waiters  are 
of  Portuguese  extraction.  Nor  will  you  find,  in  the  whole  of  India,  any 
better  servants  than  these,  .  .  ."  Herbert  Compton,  Indian  Life  in  Town 
and  Country,  pp.  208-10. 

»filisee  Reclus,  Asia,  Vol.  3,  pp.  389-90. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  29 

age  with  the  native  women  was  the  usual  and  manly  thing.30 
The  new  body  of  half-breeds  number  in  all  somewhat  over 
one  hundred  thousand  and  are  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  large  port  cities  where  the  foreign  trade  of  India  is 
largely  concentrated.31  It  is,  for  the  most  part,  these  Eng 
lish  Hindu  hybrids  alone  who  are  responsible  for  the  so- 
called  Eurasian  question. 

Physically  the  Eurasians  are  slight  and  weak.32  Their 
personal  appearance  is  subject  to  the  greatest  variations. 
In  skin  color,  for  example,  they  are  often  darker  even  than 
the  Asiatic  parent.33  They  are  naturally  indolent  and  will 
enter  into  no  employment  requiring  exertion  or  labor.  This 
lack  of  energy  is  correlated  with  an  incapacity  for  organiza 
tion.34  They  will  not  assume  burdensome  responsibilities, 
but  they  make  passable  clerks  where  only  routine  labor  is 
required. 

The  native  woman  is  inordinately  proud  of  her  half-caste 
offspring.  In  infancy  he  is  nursed,  and  in  youth  pampered 
by  his  native  servants  upon  whom  he  is  dependent.  "As  a 
consequence,  all  the  stronger  traits  of  manhood  are  feebly 

80  Recently  the  anti-nautch  movement  has  resulted  in  forcing  this  rela 
tionship  into  the  dark.  "Concubinage,  which  was  esteemed  as  rather  a 
manly  fashion  twenty  years  ago,  has  largely  disappeared  among  the  more 
enlightened  classes;  and  even  among  the  less  enlightened  it  is  regarded 
as  a  thing  rather  to  be  ashamed  than  to  be  proud  of."  "The  Indian 
Social  Reformer."  Quoted  by  J.  P.  Jones,  "Conditions  in  India,"  Jour 
nal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  2,  p.  201. 

"Madras  26,000;  Bengal  20,000;  Burma,  Bombay  and  the  United 
Provinces  8,000  to  11,000;  total  100,451.  This  is  an  increase  of  15  per 
cent  since  1901.  The  increase  seems  partly  due  to  "the  growing  ten 
dency  amongst  certain  classes  of  Indian  Christians  to  pass  themselves 
oif  as  Anglo-Indians."  Census  of  India  1911,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  140. 

"Mary  Helen  Lee,  The  Eurasian:  A  Social  Problem,  p.  13.  See,  also, 
Ellsworth  Huntington,  "Geographical  Environment  and  Japanese  Char 
acter,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  2,  pp.  158-59. 

"Compton,  Indian  Life,  p.  208. 

"Lee,  The  Eurasian,  pp.  11,  13. 


30  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

developed  in  him."85  In  manhood  he  is  wily,  untrustworthy  30 
and  untruthful.37  He  is  lacking  in  independence  and  is  for 
ever  begging  for  special  favors.  Yet  supersensitiveness  is 
a  characteristic  of  the  whole  Eurasian  community.  They 
recklessly  "resign  from  any  and  every  post  when,  for  some 
reason  or  without  reason,  their  feelings  are  hurt."38  The 
girls,  in  some  cases  at  least,  are  sold  into  prostitution.39  The 
men  are  employed  for  the  most  part  by  the  government  in 
subordinate  clerical  positions. 

Socially  the  Eurasians  are  outcaste.  They  are  despised 
by  the  ruling  whites  and  hated  by  the  natives.40  In  the 
words  of  one  of  their  class :  "To  the  European  we  are  half- 
caste,  among  ourselves  we  are  no  caste,  and  to  the  Indians 
we  are  outcaste."41  They  are  extremely  sensitive  on  the 
point  of  color.42  They  object  to  the  term  nigger;  it  is  even 
necessary  to  avoid  the  term  Eurasian  in  their  presence.43 

85  Lee,  The  Eurasian,  pp.  12,  17.  See,  also,  Ethel  Hunter,  The  Y.W.C.A. 
in  India,  Burma  and  Ceylon,  1911. 

88  "Industrially  a  Christian  native  is  preferred  to  an  Eurasian,  for  he 
is  more  trustworthy."  Lee,  The  Eurasian,  p.  10. 

"Reclus,  Asia,  Vol.  3,  pp.  389-90. 

88  "They  frequently  appeal  to  ministers  especially  and  to  all  charitably 
disposed  people.  Lord  Curzon  .  .  .  gave  their  memorials  special  atten 
tion,  and  as  a  result  delivered  a  reply  of  the  most  searching  kind  and 
urged  the  people  of  the  community  to  carve  out  something  worthy  them 
selves,  instead  of  being  continually  memoralizing  for  special  favors; 
and  refused  to  aid  in  the  special  class  regulations.  The  delegates  retired, 
'thanking  His  Excellency  for  his  sarcastic  remarks.'"  J.  Smith,  Ten 
Years  in  Burma,  p.  117. 

88  See  J.  S.  Dennis,  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,  Vol.  2, 
p.  273. 

^Reclus,  Asia,  Vol.  3,  pp.  389-90. 

"Quoted  by  Lee,  The  Eurasian,  p.  10. 

43  "Especially  if  very  dark  the  Eurasian  is  overmuch  pained  that  he  has 
not  a  white  skin."  Ibid.,  p.  13. 

43  Catering  to  this  idiosyncrasy  the  British  government  has  changed 
their  official  designation  to  "Indo-Europeans." 


Mixed-Blood  Races  31 

They  wish  to  be  called  Europeans.44 

They  have  no  part  in  the  racial  situation.  They  aspire 
to  be  English,  but  they  do  nothing  to  consolidate  British 
rule,  as  neither  the  Indian  nor  the  white  man  considers  them 
as  Englishmen.  They  have  equally  little  standing  with  the 
Indian.  They  stand  between  two  civilizations  but  are  a  part 
of  neither.  They  are  miserable,  helpless,  despised  and 
neglected. 

The  Eskimos 

In  Greenland,  the  half-breed  Eskimos  date  their  origin 
from  the  establishment  of  the  Danish  missionary  settlements 
on  the  West  Coast  in  1721.  The  European  interest  always 
has  been  trade  and  missions.  The  number  of  Scandinavians 
has  at  no  time  been  large,  and  the  colony  is  composed  al 
most  exclusively  of  men.  In  the  early  days,  it  was  used 
as  a  penal  colony,  and  from  time  to  time,  there  was  a  com 
pulsory  immigration  of  orphan  boys  to  recruit  the  teaching 
force  and  the  inferior  clergy.  The  present  white  population 
is  about  two  hundred  and  never  has  exceeded  that  number 
very  greatly.  At  first  there  were  no  white  women  in  the 
colony ;  even  now  the  number  is  very  small.  The  relations 
between  the  races  always  have  been  friendly  in  spite  of  the 
missionary  interference  with  the  native  customs,  and  in  spite 
of  the  feeling  of  superiority  of  the  Europeans  over  the 
natives. 

Miscegenation  went  on  from  the  first  and  so  extensively 
that  the  native  Eskimo  is  practically  extinct  in  the  territory 

44 ".  .  .  Some  special  enquiries  made  in  certain  towns  .  .  .  showed 
three-tenths  of  the  persons  returned  as  Europeans  were  in  reality  Anglo- 
Indians."  "The  number  of  Eurasians  who  returned  themselves  as  Euro 
peans  is  perhaps  somewhat  less  than  at  former  censuses  owing  to  the 
use  of  the  term  'Anglo-Indian.'  .  .  ."  Census  of  India  1911,  Vol.  1, 
Part  1,  pp.  139,  HO. 


32  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

under  the  influence  of  European  civilization.  A  hundred 
years  after  the  settlement,  the  half-breeds  composed  four 
teen  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  1885  the  proportion 
had  increased  to  thirty  per  cent.  At  present  the  intermix 
ture  has  gone  so  far  that  the  various  mixed  types  are  no 
longer  distinguishable  but  blend  into  one  another  in  almost 
imperceptible  degrees  from  the  pure  Dane,  on  the  one  ex 
treme,  to  the  pure  Eskimo,  on  the  other.  This  intermix 
ture,  for  the  most  part,  has  been  extra-matrimonial,  though 
there  have  been  some  unions  of  a  semi-regular  sort.  The 
stupid  interference  of  the  missionaries  with  the  fundamental 
native  customs  brought  about  a  disorganization  of  the  na 
tive  habits  which,  in  the  presence  of  their  severe  climate, 
proved  destructive  to  the  native  population.  In  the  pres 
ence  of  a  declining  pure-blood  population,  the  Danish  gov 
ernment  has  favored  the  policy  of  intermixture  and  requires 
the  Danish  official  on  his  return  to  Denmark  on  pension  to 
leave  his  native  wife  and  children  in  the  colony.45 

In  comparison  with  the  native  Eskimo  the  mixed-bloods 
are  in  reality  superior  men.46  They  are  an  improvement, 
especially  in  physical  appearance,  over  the  native  stock.47 
Socially  the  status  of  the  mixed-blood  man  is  superior  to 
that  of  the  native,  but  the  social  distinctions  are  not  so  much 
dependent  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  white  intermix 
ture  as  they  are  upon  the  amount  of  that  intermixture. 
"The  native  women  prefer  the  worst  Dane  to  the  best  Green- 
lander,  and  the  half-breeds  are  the  more  eligible  for  their 

45  At  present  there  are  from  thirty  to  forty  Danes  so  married  to 
native  women.  Encyclopaedia,  Britannica:  Greenland. 

49  Handbook  of  the  American  Indians,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Bull.  30,  Part  1,  p.  913. 

47  Keller,  however,  says:  "The  mongrels  resulting  from  these  mixed 
unions  appear  to  form  no  very  great  improvement  on  the  native  stock." 
Colonization,  p.  515. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  38 

strain  of  white  blood;  illicit  relations  with  white  men  are 
rather  a  glory  than  a  disgrace."48  The  young  native  woman, 
says  Nansen,  "positively  glories"  in  illicit  relations  with 
white  men  and  gains  a  considerable  prestige  among  her  fe 
male  friends  as  a  result  of  having  been  so  honored.49 

In  Spanish  America 

From  the  first  coming  of  the  Portuguese  to  Brazil,  there 
was  a  wholesale  miscegenation  with  the  Indian  women.  The 
mestizo  group  soon  became  a  numerically  important  ele 
ment  in  the  population.  Later,  there  were  introduced  large 
numbers  of  black  slaves  from  the  West  Coast  of  Africa. 
Unions  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  black  women  began 
with  the  first  introduction  of  the  Negroes.  As  a  result,  the 
mulattoes  presently  appeared  as  a  second  mixed-blood  race 
in  the  population.  Moreover,  the  Negroes  mixed  readily 
with  the  Indians,  giving  rise  to  a  race  of  Negro-Indian  hy 
brids — the  zambos.  There  were  thus  six  distinct  racial 
groups  in  the  population  each  with  a  clearly  defined  status. 
Crosses  between  these  various  hybrids  and  between  the  hy 
brids  and  the  pure  races  took  place  with  even  more  readi 
ness  than  between  the  pure  stocks.  The  mixed-blood  groups 
gradually  blended  into  one  another  to  form  a  single  mixed- 
blood  race,  the  relative  ethnic  composition  of  which  is  en 
tirely  indeterminable. 

It  was  this  triangular  mixture  in  unknown  proportions 
of  the  blood  of  Portuguese,  Indian,  and  Negro  that  produced 
the  so-called  metis,50  who  compose  somewhat  above  one-third 

49  Ibid.,  p.  515. 

**F.  Nansen,  Eskimo  Life,  pp.  12,  20,  163-5.  See,  also,  A.  N.  Gil- 
bertson,  Some  Ethical  Phases  of  Eskimo  Culture,  p.  73.  He  quotes 
Trebitsch  as  expressing  an  opposite  opinion. 

80  The  metis  differ  from  the  mestizos  of  other  parts  of  South  America 


84  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

of  the  present  population  of  Brazil.51  Of  the  fifteen  million 
whites,  a  considerable  number  are  so  by  law  rather  than  be 
cause  of  an  entire  absence  of  Indian  or  Negro  blood.52 

Biologically  the  metis  are  an  unstable  type.53  Their  phys 
ical  traits  vary  with  each  new  crossing  sometimes  toward 
one  and  sometimes  toward  the  other  parent  though  there  is 
a  general  tendency  toward  the  white  type.54  They  are  not 
muscular,  and  have  little  power  to  resist  disease. 

Tuberculosis  is  common  among  them.55  Some  of  the 
women  are  graceful  and  well  proportioned,  but  they  are 

principally  in  that  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  Negro  blood  in 
their  ethnic  composition.  It  would  seem  to  be  an  error,  however,  to  say 
that  this  term  is  a  synonym  for  mulatto.  See  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  The 
Negro,  p.  166. 

81  P.  F.  Martin,  Through  Five  Republics  of  South  America,  p.  155 
gives  the  population  as  follows: 

15,000,000  total 

3,500,000  Negroes 

6,000,000  mixed 

1,300,000  Indians 

900,000  Portuguese 

520,000  Germans 

1,800,000  Italians 

James  Bryce,  South  America;  Observations  and  Impressions,  pp.  433- 
34,  564-65,  estimates  the  Negro  and  Negro  mixture  to  be  about  8,000,000 
or  two-fifths  of  the  total  population.  The  number  of  zambos  he  puts 
at  300,000. 

"Martin,  Through  Five  Republics,  p.  155.  Bryce,  South  America, 
pp.  564-65. 

""Their  physical  characteristics  are  not  fixed."  Jean  Baptiste  de 
Lacerda,  "The  Metis,  or  Half-breeds,  of  Brazil,"  Inter-Racial  Problems, 
p.  378. 

""Continuous  infusions  of  Portuguese  blood,  due  to  an  immigra 
tion  .  .  .  have  gradually  overcome  the  native  strain  of  what  was  a 
largely  mongrel  population,  and  a  fortunate  reversion  toward  the  more 
developed  ethnic  component,  with  its  happier  adaptation  to  modern  con 
ditions,  has  ensued."  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  164, 

M  Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  380. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  35 

in  no  sense  a  beautiful  people.  In  color  they  vary  from 
a  dark  yellow  to  a  dull  white.  Their  hair  is  usually  dark 
and  nearly  always  curly.  Their  eyes  are  chestnut,  brown, 
or  greenish.  Their  lips  are  thick.  Their  teeth  are  irregu 
lar,  though  less  protruding  than  the  Negroes'.  On  the  whole 
they  seem  to  be  an  improvement  upon  both  the  Negro  and 
the  Indian  elements  of  their  ancestry,56  though  the  evidence 
on  this  point  is  by  no  means  uniform.57  As  agricultural 
laborers,  they  are  inferior  to  the  blacks  and  they  show  no 
capacity  for  commercial  or  industrial  life.58  Lacerda 5S 
asserts  that  they  are  ostentatious,  unpractical,  talkative, 
intemperate,  and  lacking  in  veracity  and  loyalty  but  admits 
that  they  are  intelligent,  have  some  literary  ability  and  show 
great  cleverness  as  politicians. 

In  Brazil  the  metis  form  a  sort  of  middle-class  between  the 
white  aristocracy,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Negro  and  the 
Indian,  on  the  other.  The  Indians  are  passive  and,  so  far 
as  political  affairs  are  concerned,  are  outside  the  nation. 
The  black  Negroes  are  inferior  in  education  60  and  enter- 


M ".  .  .  if  these  half-breeds  are  not  able  to  compete  in  other  quali 
ties  with  the  stronger  races  of  the  Aryan  stock,  ...  it  is  none  the  less 
certain  that  we  cannot  place  the  metis  at  the  level  of  the  really  inferior 
races.  They  are  physically  and  intellectually  well  above  the  level  of  the 
blacks,  who  were  an  ethnical  element  in  their  production."  Ibid.,  p. 
381. 

57  "In  Brazil  ...  his  [the  Indian's]  successor  is  a  decidedly  inferior 
being.  .  .  ."  Martin,  Through  Five  Republics,  p.  1. 

"Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  380. 

89  Ibid.,  p.  380.    Compare  the  Chileans.    E.  A.  Ross,  South  of  Panama, 
pp.  113,  213-14,  219,  221. 

90  Eighty   per   cent    of   the   total   population    is    illiterate.     The   ratio 
among  the  blacks  is  far  higher.     See  Martin,  Through  Five  Republics, 
p.  155.    Of  recent  attempts  to  provide  education  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  situation,  see  H.   E.   Everly,  "Vocational  Education   in  Brazil," 
Manual  Training  Magazine,  June,   1915, 


36  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

prise  to  the  Negro  of  the  Southern  States  of  America.61 
They  take  life  very  easy,  exerting  themselves  just  sufficiently 
to  provide  the  few  necessities  of  life  in  a  tropical  climate.62 
The  whites  are  the  ruling  class,63  though  for  political  and 
social  purposes,  the  upper  grade  of  the  metis  and  the  whites 
are  practically  one  class. 

At  the  founding  of  the  republic,  the  numerical  preponder 
ance  of  the  mixed-blood  race  enabled  them  to  secure  an  equal 
the  governmental  affairs  of  the  country.  Many  of 
them  secured  political  offices,  and  they  exert  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  government  of  the  country.64  Many  of  the 
mixed-blood  race  are  men  of  property  65  and  are  influential 
in  the  affairs  of  the  community. 

In  social  affairs,  the  color  line  between  the  whites  and  the 
mixed-blood  race  is  neither  hard  nor  fast.66  Many  of  the 
so-called  whites  are  tinged  with  Negro  or  Indian  blood.67 
Intermarriage  is  forbidden  neither  by  law  nor  by  custom, 
and  mixed  unions  are  not  uncommon.  To  the  Portuguese, 
the  idea  of  personal  contact  with  an  Indian  or  a  Negro 
excites  little  feeling  of  physical  repulsion.  The  aristocracy 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  South  America,  are  pure  white ;  and 
marriages  between  them  and  the  pure  Indians  or  Negroes  do 

81  Bryce,  South  America,  pp.  479-80. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  404-05. 

83  Ibid.,  p.  565. 

"Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  pp.  381-82. 

85  Not  so  many  as  is  sometimes  asserted.  "Bahia  .  .  .  has  a  population 
of  250,000  and  is  rapidly  growing.  Most  of  the  population  are  real 
Negroes.  .  .  .  The  city  is  so  prosperous  that  there  are  10,000  Negroes 
who  are  millionaires.  .  .  ."  The  Chicago  Defender,  A  Negro  Paper, 
1-15-1916. 

66  It  seems  to  be  the  observation  of  this  fact  that  has  led  certain  super 
ficial  observers  to  announce  an  entire  absence  of  color  prejudice  in 
Brazil.  See  The  Chicago  Defender,  12-11-1915,  1-22-1916. 

"Bryce,  South  America,  p.  565. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  37 

not  occur.68  "The  Brazilian  lower  class  intermarries  freely 
with  the  black  people ;  the  Brazilian  middle  class  69  inter 
marries  with  the  mulattoes  and  the  quadroons."70 

The  color  line — so  far  as  there  is  a  color  line — is  drawn 
with  the  Negro  and  the  Indian  on  the  one  side  and  the  white 
man  and  the  metis  on  the  other.71  The  mixed-blood  man  is 
as  contemptuous  of  the  native  and  the  Negro,  as  is  the  white 
man.72  The  aspiration  of  the  half-breed  is  to  be  like  the 
white  man.73  He  calls  himself  white,  consciously  models  him 
self  on  the  white  man,  tries  to  think  and  act  as  a  white  man 
and,  if  possessed  of  education  and  property,  is  so  treated.74 
He  is  free  to  intermarry  with  the  whites  and  his  ambition 
is  to  do  so.  With  each  such  crossing,  the  offspring  approx 
imate  more  and  more  to  the  pure  white  type.  Aside  from 
reversions,  they  are  sometimes  able  to  pass  as  white  in  their 
Portuguese  community  by  the  third  generation.  Lacerda  75 
sums  up  the  racial  situation  in  these  words : 

The  mulatto  himself  endeavours,  by  marriage,  to 
bring  back   his   descendants    to   the   pure   white   type. 

"See  Theodore  Roosevelt,  "Brazil  and  the  Negro,"  Outlook,  Vol.  106, 
pp.  409-11. 

89 Largely  mixed.  Officially  white.  See  Bryce,  South  America,  p.  492; 
South  American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  216. 

70  Bryce,  South  America,  pp.  479-80.     Bryce  counts  as  white  all  indi 
viduals  having  three-fourths  or  more  white  blood. 

71  In  southern  Brazil  in  the  expanding  German,  Swiss  and  white  Por 
tuguese  settlements  the  color  line  is  drawn  separating  the  whites  from 
the  colored  and  the  mixed.     See  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  The  Negro  in 
the  New   World.     See,  also,  D.   P.   Kidder  and  J.   C.   Fletcher,  Brazil 
and  the  Brazilians,  pp.   132-33. 

"Bryce,  South  America,  p.  565. 

"Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  382.  Bryce,  South  America,  pp. 
460-67. 

74  The  same  thing  is  theoretically  true  of  the  Indian  and  the  Negro. 
See  Roosevelt,  The  Outlook,  Vol.  106,  pp.  409-11. 

"Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  382. 


38  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Children  of  metis  have  been  found,  in  the  third  genera 
tion,  to  present  all  the  physical  characters  of  the  white 
race,  although  some  of  them  retain  a  few  traces  of 
their  black  ancestry  through  the  influence  of  atavism. 
The  influence  of  sexual  selection,  however,  tends  to  neu 
tralise  that  of  atavism,  and  removes  from  the  descend 
ants  of  the  metis  all  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
black  race.  In  virtue  of  this  process  of  ethnic  reduc 
tion,  it  is  logical  to  expect  that  in  the  course  of  another 
century  the  metis  will  have  disappeared  from  Brazil. 
This  will  coincide  with  the  parallel  extinction  of  the 
black  race  in  our  midst.  When  slavery  was  abolished, 
the  black,  left  to  himself,  began  to  abandon  the  cen 
tres  of  civilisation.  Exposed  to  all  kinds  of  destruc 
tive  agencies,  and  without  sufficient  resources  to  main 
tain  themselves,  the  negroes  are  scattered  over  the 
thinly  populated  districts,  and  tend  to  disappear  from 
our  territory. 

Aside  from  Brazil,  most  of  Central  and  South  America 
was  colonized  by  the  Spanish.  The  early  immigration  was 
of  a  poor  quality,  being  composed  chiefly  of  clergy  and  of 
adventurers  who  came  with  an  intention  of  acquiring  a  com 
petence  if  possible  and  then  returning  to  Spain.  Another 
large  group  of  immigrants  were  convicts,  sentenced  to  death 
or  mutilation,  whose  sentences  were  commuted  on  condition 
that  they  emigrate  to  the.  colonies.  The  objects  of  the  early 
colonists  were  adventure  and  trade  rather  than  settlement.76 
Consequently  there  were  few  women  of  good  character 
though,  unlike  the  Portuguese,  the  Spanish  government 

lever  foisted  their  objectionable  women  upon  the  colonists. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  dearth  of  Spanish  women  either  mar- 

-ied  or  marriageable. 
The  Spanish  interest  was  centered  in  the  mines  and  for 

Ta  See  James  Bryce,  "Migrations  of  the  Races  of  Men,"  Contemporary 
Review,  Vol.  62,  p.  134. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  39 

three  centuries  the  plantations  and  agriculture  in  general 
was  a  failure  in  Spanish  America.77  The  healthful  and 
wealth-producing  regions  of  the  tropics  were  the  interior 
highlands,  and  it  was  there  alone  that  a  considerable  popu 
lation  grew  up.  But  even  there,  it  was  made  up  mostly  of 
useless  individuals,  adventurers,  and  functionaries  but  not 
of  workers,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  almost  ex 
clusively  a  town  population. 

The  Indians  and  the  Spanish  were  not  so  temperamentally 
constituted  as  to  be  able  to  come  to  any  mutually  satisfac 
tory  working  relations.  They  never  reached  anything  re 
motely  approaching  kindly  feeling  and  unity  of  purpose. 
The  Indians  were  not  adapted  to  slavery;  the  Spanish  had 
an  exaggerated  idea  of  their  own  superiority.  The  situ 
ation  worked  itself  out  on  the  single  and  simple  principle  of 
relative  power.78  The  attitude  of  the  Spanish  was  ruthless 
and  savage.  They  seized  the  public  and  private  wealth  of 
the  natives,  appropriated  their  women,  and  finally  levied 
upon  their  vital  force.  To  develop  the  mines,  they  needed  a 
large  labor  supply ;  to  get  the  labor  supply,  they  drove  the 
natives  in  crowds  to  the  mountains,  where  the  unwonted  labor 
and  the  scanty  nourishment  combined  with  the  effects  of  the 
climatic  change  and  the  broken  family  life,  to  bring  about 
a  rapid  decline  in  the  population.79  To  supply  the  place  of 
the  decreasing  native  labor,  African  slaves  were  introduced 
and  grew  rapidly  in  numbers.80 

Intermixture  with  the  natives  began  with  the  first  landing 
of  the  Spanish  explorers  on  American  soil.81  and  so  exten- 

77  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  223. 

78  Ibid.,  p.  259. 

79  Ibid.,  pp.  256  ff. 

80  Ibid.,  pp.  280-82. 

81  Syphilis,  which  spread  like  a  plague  over  the  whole  of  Europe  during 
the  sixteenth  century,  dates  its  origin  as  a  disease  of  civilized  man  from 


40  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

sive  was  this  mixture  of  races  that  it  has  been  characterized 
as  the  "prime  phenomenon  in  the  contact  of  races  in  Spanish 
America."82  After  the  introduction  of  the  Negro,  there 
grew  up  several  new  varieties  of  half-breeds  and  each  of  the 
races  and  half-races  came  to  have  a  more  or  less  clearly 
and  definitely  defined  status  in  the  community  life. 

The  main  constituents,  taken  as  ethnic  and  social  types, 
were  six  in  number.83  The  Peninsular  Spaniards,  those  from 
Europe,  were  of  course  the  aristocracy;  next  in  order  came 
the  white  Creoles,  descendants  of  Europeans  settled  in  Amer 
ica  ;  a  third  class  was  the  mestizos,  mongrels  resulting  from 
the  association  of  Europeans  with  the  native  women ;  a  little 
later  in  time  and  lower  in  status,  came  the  mulattoes ;  next 
in  the  social  rank  came  the  Negroes,  and  last  of  all,  the 
natives. 

Between  these  main  groups  were  many  other  mixtures 
approximating  one  or  the  other  of  the  main  groups,  or  form 
ing  separate  groups  apart.  The  mestizos  multiplied  with 
such  rapidity  that  they  came  to  form  and  still  form  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  the  population  of  Spanish  America. 

The  association  of  these  various  ethnic  groups  was  marked 
by  hatred,  bitterness  and  strife.84  The  Spanish  officials  held 

the  return  of  the  first  Columbian  expedition  from  America.     It  was  the 
red  man's  one  contribution  to  civilization.     See  Iwan  Bloch,  The  Sexual 
Life  of  Our  Time,  M.  Eden  Paul's  Translation,  pp.  351-56. 
83  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  295. 

83  Perhaps   seven   or  even  more.     See   H.  C.   Morris,   The  History  of 
Colonization,  Vol.  1,  pp.  252-53. 

84  "The  different  shades  were  classified  with  minute  attention,  not  only 
by  the  force  of  custom  but  also  by  the  law.    When  there  was  only  a  sixth 
of  negro  or  Indian  blood  in  the  veins  of  a  colonist,  the  law  granted  him 
the  title  of  white:  que  se  tenga  por  bianco.     Each  caste  was   full  of 
envy  for  those  above  and  of  contempt  for  those  below."     Leroy-Beau- 
lieu,  i,  II;  cf.  Roscher,  The  Spanish  Colonial  System,  pp.  149-50.    Keller, 
Colonization,  p.  220,  f.  n. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  41 

in  contempt  the  Creoles  and,  especially,  the  mestizos  who 
formed  the  industrial  elements  of  the  Colonies.  The  mixed- 
blood  races  felt  superior  to  the  native  and  the  Negro  stock 
from  which  they  had  sprung.85  The  Negroes  had  an  im 
placable  hatred  for  the  natives  and,  secure  in  their  greater 
physical  strength  and  the  approval  of  their  masters,  mis 
treated  the  natives  at  every  opportunity.  The  natives  in 
their  pitiable  condition  hated  all  their  oppressors  in  varying 
degrees. 

Time  and  further  mixed  breeding  reduced  the  various  mon 
grel  types  to  a  relative  uniformity  in  physical  appearance 
and  mental  characteristics.  Immigration  being  restricted 
for  a  long  time,  the  number  of  incoming  Spaniards  was  small 
and  this,  together  with  the  scarcity  of  Spanish  women, 
kept  the  natural  increase  of  the  white  race  very  limited. 
Consequently  the  native  element  was  the  determining  factor 
in  the  biological  situation.  The  very  fact  of  relative  num 
bers  made  it  inevitable  that  the  mixed-blood  race  should  tend 
toward  the  Indian  type.  The  caste  feeling  was  not  suffi 
cient  to  preserve  them  from  this  fate  and,  in  spite  of  a  larger 
later  immigration  from  Europe,  the  reversion  has  partly 
taken  place.86 

85  "The  aversion  between  mulattoes  and  negroes  was  as  great  as  that 
between  whites  and  negroes.  The  civil  position  of  each  class  depended 
mainly  and  naturally  upon  the  greater  or  less  whiteness  of  their  com 
plexion.  'Todo  bianco  es  caballero.' "  Roscher,  The  Spanish  Colonial 
System,  p.  21.  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  220  f.  n. 

8a  Earl  Finch  states  that  it  is  the  American  Indian  who  declines  in 
the  process  of  miscegenation  of  the  Negroes,  Spanish,  Portuguese  and 
Indians.  See  "The  Effects  of  Racial  Miscegenation,"  Inter-Racial  Prob 
lems,  p.  109.  This  is  true  in  the  sense  that  the  introduction  of  foreign 
blood  into  a  population  tends  to  diffuse  in  a  culturally  downward  direc 
tion,  and  the  lower  strata  of  the  population  tend  to  become  contaminated 
by  traces  of  it.  But  the  decline  in  numbers  of  a  pure-blood  native  race 
is  due  to  disease  and  the  failure  or  inability  of  the  primitive  folk  to  ac 
commodate  themselves  to  civilized  habits  and  manners  of  life.  In  an 


42  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Such  is  the  racial  background  for  the  latter  day  situation 
in  the  various  Spanish-American  Republics. 

There  are  no  general  censuses  of  the  Spanish-American 
countries,  and  consequently  no  accurate  numerical  knowl 
edge  of  the  various  racial  groups  in  the  different  republics. 
Bryce  estimates  the  total  population  at  45,000,000,  of  whom 
approximately  one-fifth  are  pure  Indians,  one-third  mestizos, 
one-third  white  with  much  Indian  blood  and  the  remainder 
Negroes,  mulattoes  and  zambos.87  Of  the  15,000,000  whites, 
more  than  half  are  in  the  Republics  of  Argentine  and  Uru 
guay,  which  republics  contain  no  native  or  Negro  elements,88 
and  in  the  southern  part  of  Brazil  which  is  also  free  from  the 
colored  races.  The  Negroes  and  their  various  intermixtures 
with  the  white  and  Indian  races  are  chiefly  in  northern  and 
eastern  Brazil,  though  there  are  a  goodly  number  in  Guinea 
and  some  in  Venezuela.89  In  insignificant  numbers,  they  are 
found  in  the  cities  of  the  other  South  American  countries. 
The  population  of  Paraguay  is  nearly  all  Indian :  the  white 
and  mixed  elements  are  so  small  as  to  be  negligible.  Colom 
bia  is  approximately  fifty  per  cent  so-called  white.  The 

inter-racial  situation  in  which  there  is  intermarriage  between  the  races 
the  result  is  determined  exclusively  by  the  relative  members  of  the  two 
groups.  In  a  caste  situation,  Finch  is  right:  there  the  lower  groups 
receive  a  continual  admixture  of  blood  from  the  castes  above  them  while 
the  superior  caste  receives  no  blood  from  the  inferior  groups. 

15,000,000 
8,000,000 
3,000,000 
19,000,000 


South  America,  pp.  564-65. 

88  There  is  a  substratum  of  Indian  mestizos  in  North  Argentine  but  no 
country  in  the  western  hemisphere  with  the  single  exception  of  Canada  is 
so  nearly  racially  white.  See  E.  A.  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp.  119-20. 

89 White  10  per  cent;  mestizo  70  per  cent;  Indian  and  Negro  20  per 
cent.  South  American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  742. 


Whites 

15,000,000 

Whites 

Indians 

8,000,000 

Indians 

Negroes 

3,000,000 

Negroes 

Mestizos 

13,000,000 

Mixed 

Mulattoes 

5,700,000 

Zambos 

300,000 

Mixed-Blood  Races  43 

actual  whites  form  a  much  smaller  per  cent.90  Equador  is 
approximately  ten  per  cent  white.91  Peru  has  ten  per  cent 
or  less  of  white  and  near-white,  thirty-five  per  cent  mixed, 
and  fifty-five  per  cent  Indian.92  Bolivia  has  a  somewhat 
larger  percentage  of  pure  Indian  stock.93  Chile  has  a  small 
white  aristocracy  and  a  very  few  Indians ;  the  population 
is  nearly  all  mixed  though  they  claim  to  be  white  and  the 
tendency  is  to  so  classify  them.94  The  Central  American 
states  are  about  fifteen  per  cent  white  or  what  passes  for 
white  in  the  Spanish-American  states.95  The  Mexican  cen 
sus  of  1900  returned  nineteen  per  cent  of  the  total  popula 
tion  as  "white  or  nearly  white,"  forty-three  per  cent  as 
Indian  and  white  intermixture  and  thirty-eight  per  cent  as 
Indian  out  of  a  total  population  of  13,607,259.96 

00  Ibid.,  1915,  p.  503. 
91  Ibid.,  p.  562. 

"Ibid.,  p.  638.  The  Lima  Geographical  Society,  1896,  estimated  the 
population  of  Peru  as  white  20  per  cent,  Indian  57  per  cent  and  mixed 
23  per  cent.  Quoted  by  P.  F.  Martin,  Peru  of  the  Twentieth  Century, 
p.  42.  Bryce  estimates  that  the  pure  whites  of  Peru  do  not  number  as 
much  as  5  per  cent.  See  South  America,  p.  66.  Ross,  South  of  Panama, 
pp.  39-40,  260,  gives  the  population  as  2,000,000  Indians,  1,500,000  mes 
tizos  and  500,000  white  or  near-white. 

98  Bryce  gives  the  population  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  as  follows: 
6,000,000     total 
3,500,000     Indian 
1,500,000    mestizo 

1,000,000     Spaniards,  more  or  less  pure. 
South  America,  pp.  458-59. 
94  Ibid.,  p.  232. 

96  Martin,  Through  Five  Republics,  p.  237.  N.  O.  Winter,  Guatemala 
and  Her  People  of  To-day,  p.  109. 

98  Bryce  is  disposed  to  materially  modify  these  proportions.    He  gives : 
Total  15,000,000 

Indian  8,000,000 

Mixed  6,000,000 

Spaniards  1,000,000 

South  America,  p.  459. 


44  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

These  numbers  are  at  best  only  a  rough  approximation. 
There  are  no  data  available  which  justify  any  close  esti 
mation  either  of  the  total  population  or  of  the  various  racial 
elements  of  which  it  is  composed.  Moreover,  it  is  not  pos 
sible  to  make  any  accurate  distribution  of  the  population 
into  racial  categories  because  color  is  a  badge  of  inferiority 
and  is  always  denied  or  if  too  obvious  to  be  denied,  the 
amount  is  understated.  Further  there  is  no  agreement  as 
to  what  proportion  of  Negro  or  Indian  blood  must  be  pres 
ent  to  rule  an  individual  out  of  the  white  class  to  which 
every  one  strives  to  belong.  Bryce,  for  example,  in  his 
estimates  counts  as  "white"  all  whose  racial  ancestry  is  as 
much  as  three-fourths  white.97  The  tendency  of  the  official 
statistics  is  to  count  as  white  all  educated  mestizos.99 

Despite  the  fact  that  they  constitute  but  a  small  per 
centage  of  the  total  population  in  most  of  the  Spanish- 
American  republics,  the  whites  are  in  all  cases  the  ruling 
class."  They  form  the  social  aristocracy,  they  practically 
control  the  political  and  governmental  situation,100  and  they 
comprise  the  educated  class  so  far  as  such  a  class  exists. 1( 

The  census  of  1910  gave  a  total  population  of  15,160,369  distributed 
as  follows: 

15,160,369     total 
15,043,842     Mexican  birth 

116,527     foreign  birth  of  whom  29,541  were  Spanish 

M  Bryce,  South  America,  p.  565. 

"Ibid.,  p.  460. 

w  Bolivia,  for  example.  "Politics  is  left  to  the  few  whites  and  Mes 
tizos  in  four  or  five  towns.  Politically  the  Bolivian  nation  shrinks  from 
two  million  to  some  thousands."  Ibid.,  p.  529.  See,  also,  Ross,  South 
of  Panama,  pp.  331  if. 

w  South  American  Year  Book,  1914,  pp.  561-62. 

101  Ibid.,  p.  503. 

Speaking  in  particular  of  the  women:  "So  far  as  the  northern  repub 
lics  of  dusky  and  mixed  races  are  concerned,  one  can  only  deal  with  the 
few  white  women  of  each  republic,  since  all  the  rest  may,  for  the  pur- 


Mixed-Blood  Races  45 

In  the  southern  and  more  progressive  republics,  the  white 
element  has  been  reinforced  continuously  by  a  considerable 
immigration  from  western  Europe.  This  is  especially  true 
of  Argentine  and  Uruguay  and  to  a  somewhat  lesser  extent 
of  Chile  and  of  south  and  central  Brazil,102  where  the  whites 
are  numerically  the  dominant  group.  In  the  northern  re 
publics,  however,  it  is  only  a  small  white  aristocracy  that  is 
comparable  with  the  general  population  of  Argentine  and 
the  other  white  states  of  the  south.103  As  a  consequence, 
the  whites  have  been  able  to  maintain  a  republican  form  of 
government  in  the  southern  republics ;  in  the  north,  it  is  only 
by  compromising  with  the  mixed  elements  that  they  have 
been  able  to  maintain  any  government  at  all.104 

Everywhere  throughout  Spanish  America,  the  Indians 
form  the  lowest  strata  of  the  population  and  but  seldom 
rise  out  of  their  degraded  position.105  In  the  remoter  cen 
tral  regions  and  in  the  mountains,  the  race  is  still  relatively 

poses  of  generalization,  really  and  truly  be  placed  in  one  category — 
that  of  the  completely  unintellectual."  W.  H.  Koebel,  The  South  Ameri 
cans,  p.  81.  See,  also,  pp.  13,  16. 

102  Argentine,  for  example,  has  received  an  immigration  in  excess  of 
four  million  during  the  past  fifty  years.  Ibid.,  p.  17.  There  is  much 
Germanic  blood  in  the  upper  classes  of  Chile  and  this  fact  is  said  to  be 
reflected  in  the  political  life.  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp.  109,  110. 

108  "To  the  North  of  these  countries  [Argentine,  Chile,  Uruguay,  South 
Brazil  and  Central  Brazil]  .  .  .  we  get  for  the  most  part  territories 
where  a  small  white  and  educated  aristocracy  governs  of  necessity  the 
population  of  Indians,  Mestizos,  or  even  Negroes;  and  thus  we  enter 
into  a  new  and  different  phase  which  does  not  permit  of  comparison 
with  European  circumstances."  Koebel,  The  South  Americans,  p.  13. 

104  Venezuela,  for  example,  with  her  10  per  cent  of  white  and  near- 
white  and  her  90  pet  cent  of  Negroes,  Indians  and  mestizos  has  never 
in  her  whole  history  had  a  president  who  attained  office  through  a  legally 
conducted  election.  South  American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  742. 

106Bryce,  South  America,  pp.  478-79.  He  is  speaking  here  of  th« 
northern  republics. 


46  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

unmixed.  There  are  no  European  settlers  and  even  the  in 
filtration  of  Negro  blood  has  been  small.108  The  Negro, 
aside  from  Brazil  and  the  northern  tropic  regions,  has  not 
persisted.107  The  Indians  in  general  perform  all  the  lower 
forms  of  work  and  come  but  little  into  contact  with  the 
white  people,  except  in  the  capacity  of  servants  and  em 
ployees.  They  are  in  general  wholly  illiterate,108  and  so 
cially  and  otherwise  form  a  group  apart — within  the  nation 
but  not  of  it.  "By  the  constitution  they  are,  in  many  states, 
citizens  and  have  votes.  But  they  never  think  of  voting, 
having,  although  free,  no  more  to  do  with  the  government 
than  the  slaves  had  in  the  Southern  United  States  before  the 
Civil  War."  109 

Between  the  small  white  upper  class  and  the  illiterate  and 
largely  uncivilized  natives,  stands  the  mestizo  who  is,  taking 
Spanish  America  as  a  whole,  the  numerically  dominant  group. 
While  the  status  of  the  mestizos  varies  within  rather  wide 
limits  in  different  states  and  even  within  the  same  state, 
they  form,  in  general,  a  sort  of  middle  class  in  the  popula 
tion.  Exception  must  here  be  made  of  the  white  Republics 
of  Argentine  and  Uruguay,  the  native  Republic  of  Paraguay 
and  of  Brazil,  the  southern  parts  of  which  are  white,  and  the 
northern  parts  largely  Negro  and  mulatto.110  The  upper 
class  mestizos  are  in  many  cases  small  property  owners  and 
compose  most  of  the  small  shop-keeping  class ;  from  the 

loa".  .  .  the  distinctions  which  undoubtedly  exist,  and  are  often  sup 
posed  to  be  of  race,  are  in  fact  only  between  Indians  who  are  Catholic 
and  speak  Spanish  and  Indians,  who  are  grouped  by  the  other  Indians, 
'as  savages'  .  .  ."  Sir  Charles  W.  Dilke,  "Forced  and  Indentured  Labor 
in  South  America,"  Nationalities  and  Subject  Races,  p.  101. 

107Koebel,  The  South  Americans,  p.  92. 

108  The  same  might  be  said  of  most  of  the  mixed  and  a  good  per  cent 
of  the  white  population.  Eighty  per  cent  of  South  America  is  illiterate. 

108Bryce,  South  America,  p.  529.    Ross,  South  of  Panama,  p.  331. 

110  Ibid-.,  p.  492. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  47 

lower  grades  of  the  mestizo  come  the  artisan  and  the  ser 
vant  classes.111 

But  the  ethnological  distinctions  seldom  are  clearly  drawn. 
A  certain  per  cent  of  the  white  race  have  preserved  their 
racial  integrity  intact112  and  these  everywhere  form  the  so 
cial  and  intellectual  aristocracy.  But  the  bulk  of  the  so- 
called  whites  are  tinged  with  a  greater  or  less  amount  of 
Indian  blood.113  The  upper  class  mestizos,  in  manners  and 
customs  and  habits  of  life,  often  compare  not  unfavorably 
with  their  white  neighbors.  They  are,  to  the  extent  of  their 
ability,  Spaniards.  In  education,  they  are  Spanish ;  in  re 
ligion,  they  are  Christians ;  and  in  their  ideas  and  habits  of 
thinking,  they  are  faithful  imitations  of  the  white  aris 
tocracy.114 

Between  the  white  man  and  the  educated  mestizo  there  is 
no  color  line  in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  understood  in 
the  United  States.  For  social  and  political  purposes  they 
form  virtually  one  class.  All  mestizos,  and  increasingly  so 
as  their  color  decreases  and  their  education  increases,  claim 
to  be  white  men,  and  in  general  they  are  so  treated.115  It 
is,  in  fact,  by  compromising  thus  with  the  mixed  element  that 
the  white  has  been  able  to  maintain  some  semblance  of  or 
derly  government  in  many  of  the  Latin  American  republics. 
But  the  mestizos  are  not  all  educated,  and  by  no  means  all 

ltL  South  American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  503. 

113  Ibid.,  pp.  638,  503,  562. 

113 ".  .  .  ethnologically  there  is  no  dividing  line  to  be  drawn  in  South 
America  between  the  white,  the  Indian,  and  the  Savage.  The  so-called 
whites  are  largely  Indian,  the  Indians  are  largely  negro,  and  the  savages 
are  partly  Indian,  partly  negro  and  partly  an  amalgam  of  races  older 
in  the  country  than  the  principal  Indian  tribes."  Dilke,  Nationalities 
and  Subject  Races,  p.  103. 

114Bryce,  South  America,  p.  433.     Ross,  South  of  Panama,  p.  168. 

115  "Every  one  wishes  to  be  reckoned  as  a  white  man.  .  .  ."  Bryce, 
South  America,  p.  460.  See,  also,  pp.  478-79,  473-74,  232,  472-73. 


48  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

are  able,  even  in  a  South  American  community,  to  pass  as 
white  men.  It  is  frequently  as  difficult  to  determine  who 
should  be  deemed  an  Indian  and  who  a  mestizo,  as  it  is  at  the 
other  end  of  the  scale  to  say  who  is  to  be  deemed  a  white 
man  and  who  a  man  of  mixed-blood.116  Between  the  lower 
class  mestizo  and  the  Indian,  there  is  little  intellectual  or 
social  distinction.117 

While  there  are  thus  mixed-blood  men  in  both  the  white 
and  the  Indian  groups,  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the 
mestizo  forms,  in  any  other  than  a  physiological  sense,  a 
connecting  link  between  the  races.  He  is,  rather,  a  member 
of  one  or  the  other  group  depending  upon  his  color,  educa 
tion,  and  economic  status.  The  break  between  the  upper- 
class  mestizo  and  the  Indian  group  is  frequently  a  sharp  one. 
They  sometimes  differ  as  widely  as  do  the  native  and  the 
white  with  the  additional  consideration  that  the  mestizo  con 
stantly  emphasizes  the  fact  of  his  white  blood  by  his  hatred 
of  and  contempt  for  the  native.118  "The  Indians,"  says 
Bryce,  "have  nothing,  except  the  worship  of  the  saints  and 
a  fondness  for  liquor,  in  common  with  the  class  above 
them."119 

There  is  nothing  in  law  or  custom  to  prevent  the  intermar 
riage  of  the  races.  The  educated  mestizo  endeavors  to  marry 
a  white  woman  and  is  successful  in  proportion  to  his  economic 
status  in  the  community.  The  lower-class  mestizos  intermix 
readily  with  the  Indians.120  Between  the  whites  and  the  near- 

119  Bryce,  South  America,  p.  458. 

117  "The  Indians  .  .  .  absorb  or  are  absorbed  by  the  Mestizo."     South 
American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  503. 

118  [He]   "has  repeatedly  shown  himself  to  be  very  cruel  toward  the 
Indians,  whom  he  despises  much  more  than  the  better  class  man  would 
do."     Ibid.,  p.  7. 

m  South  America,  p.  474.    See,  also,  pp.  438,  185-86. 
'"The  mixed-blood  women  in  Peru  bear  a  goodly  number  of  children 
to  the  Chinese  coolies.    See  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp.  39-40. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  49 

whites,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Indian  and  the  lower-class 
mestizo,  on  the  other,  there  is  no  intermarriage;  but  this 
fact  seems  to  be  due  more  to  social  than  to  racial  causes.  It 
is  class  separation  rather  than  a  racial  antipathy.121  Says 
Bryce:122 

To  understand  the  social  relations  of  the  white  and 
Indian  races  one  must  begin  by  remembering  that  there 
is  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  countries  no  such  sharp 
colour  line  as  exists  where  men  of  Teutonic  stock  are 
settled  in  countries  outside  of  Europe.  As  this  is  true 
of  the  negro,  it  is  even  more  true  of  the  Indian.  He 
may  be  despised  as  a  weakling,  he  may  be  ignored  as  a 
citizen,  he  may  be,  as  he  was  at  one  time,  abominably 
oppressed  and  ill  treated,  but  he  excites  no  personal 
repulsion.  It  is  not  his  race  that  is  against  him,  but 
his  debased  condition.  Whatever  he  suffers,  is  suffered 
because  he  is  ignorant  or  timid  or  helpless,  not  because 
he  is  of  a  different  blood  and  colour.  .  .  .  The  distinc 
tion  between  the  races  is  in  Spanish  America  a  distinc 
tion  of  rank  or  class  rather  than  of  colour.  Against 
intermarriage  there  is,  therefore,  no  more  feeling  than 
that  which  exists  against  any  union  palpably  below  a 
man's  or  woman's  own  rank  in  life.  If  it  is  rare  for  a 
pure  white  to  espouse  a  pure  Indian,  that  is  because 
they  are  of  different  ranks,  just  as  it  is  rare  for  a 
well-born  Englishman  to  marry  a  peasant  girl.  There 
is  nothing  in  the  law  to  oppose  such  a  union,  and 
though  whites  seldom  marry  pure  Indians,  because  the 
classes  come  little  into  contact,  the  presence  of  an  un 
mistakable  Indian  strain  in  a  mestizo  makes  no  dif 
ference  to  his  acceptability  to  a  white  woman  of  the 
same  class.  .  .  . 

m  However,  Meredith  Towrisend  states  that  the  years  "during  which 
Spaniards  and  Indians  have  dwelt  together  in  South  America  have  not 
softened  their  mutual  antipathies;  ,  ,  ,"  Afia  and  Europe,  pp.  217-18. 

**  South  America,  pp.  470-71, 


50  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  state  of  almost  entire  absence  of  racial  or  color  prej 
udice  thus  pictured  seems,  at  times, — between  revolutions 
and  race  wars — to  approach  realization  in  some  of  the  South 
American  countries.  In  how  far  this  racial  harmony  is  ret J 
and  in  how  far  it  is  merely  a  temporary  accommodation  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  is  still  a  matter  of  some  doubt. 

But  wherever  the  Negroes  and  mulattoes  are  found  even 
in  small  numbers,  there  is  also  found  an  unmistakable  race 
question.  In  Guiana,  for  example,  there  is  a  marked  ar~ 
tipathy  toward  and  avoidance  of  the  black  man  by  every 
other  race  and  color  in  the  community.  There  was  formerly 
some  intermarriage  between  the  Portuguese  immigrants  and 
the  blacks  and  mulattoes,  but  there  is  now  an  avoidance  of 
association  even  of  the  low-class  Europeans  and  the  Negroes. 
There  is  still  some  intermarriage  between  the  Portuguese  and 
the  near-white  mulattoes.123  The  Negroes  have  a  wholesome 
fear  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  latter  freely  and  without  hesi 
tation  use  the  mulatto  and  Negro  women  as  concubines 
though  the  relation  is  hardly  one  of  marriage.124  The  East 
Indians  intermix  to  some  extent  with  the  mulattoes,  but  they 
have  the  greatest  antipathy  for  the  blacks  and  refuse  to 
cohabit  with  them.125  The  American  Indian  detests  and 
despises  the  Negro.126  The  whites,  even  where  they  show 
no  particular  prejudice  against  the  presence  of  Indian  blood, 
have  an  entirely  different  attitude  toward  the  Negro  and  the 

128  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  pp.  333-34. 

*M  Ibid.,  p.  332.  The  Negroes  are  "entirely  'unmoral'  in  their  sexual 
relations"  and  have  no  repugnance  toward  intermixture  with  any  of  the 
other  races.  Ibid.,  p.  334. 

"B"An  Indian  kuli  would  ordinarily  prefer  to  live  unmarried  sooner 
than  cohabit  with  a  negress:  they  are  not  perhaps  so  squeamish  about 
marriage  with  mulattoes."  76  id.,  p.  334.  See,  also,  p.  332.  They  inter 
marry  with  the  Amerindians. 

™Ibid.,  p.  332.     Bryce,  South  America,  pp.  473  f,  n..  566-67, 


Mixed-Blood  Races  51 

mulatto.  The  greatest  antipathy,  however,  is  that  existing 
between  the  near-white  mulattoes  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Negroes  and  mulattoes  of  darker  hue  on  the  other.127 

In  the  Philippines 

In  the  Philippine  Islands  at  the  present  time,  there  are  two 
mixed-blood  races  in  considerable  numbers  and  of  different 
race  parentage — the  Chinese  mestizo  and  the  Spanish 
mestizo.  The  former  is  the  product  of  the  intercrossing  of 
the  Chinese  and  the  Malay;  the  latter  is  the  offspring  of 
the  Peninsular  Spaniard  or  the  Spanish  creole  with  the  na 
tive  Malay  woman.  A  great  variety  of  other  mongrels  is 
found,  but  not  in  numbers  sufficient  to  assume  the  propor 
tions  of  a  problem. 

When  the  Spanish  entered  the  Islands  in  1521,  they  found 
the  productive  valleys  occupied  by  a  race  of  uncivilized 
Moros.  They  subjugated  this  race,  and  undertook  the  busi 
ness  of  conversion.  To  the  Spaniards,  the  Islands  were 
always  rather  a  mission  than  a  colony.  There  were  no  mines 
to  be  worked  and  no  plantations  calling  for  a  large  body  of 
servile  labor.  There  was  no  decline  in  the  native  population 
as  was  elsewhere  true  of  the  Spanish  colonies  128  and  there 
was  no  introduction  of  a  substitute  labor  supply.  The 
Islands  were  too  far  away  and  offered  too  little  in  the  way 
of  immediate  and  large  returns  to  attract  the  Spanish  mer- 

m  "There  is  a  slight  'color  question'  in  Guiana,  but  the  sensitiveness 
lies  rather  between  the  'near-whites'  of  pale  ivory  complexion  and  the 
darker  tinted  mulattoes  or  negroes.  There  is  now  practically  no  inter 
marriage  between  whites  and  blacks;  on  the  other  hand,  numerous  unions 
take  place  between  whites,  especially  Portuguese,  and  the  lighter- 
skinned  negroids,  many  of  whom  would  almost  sooner  perish  in  celi 
bacy  than  intermarry  with  the  negro  or  mulatto."  Johnston,  The  Negro 
in  the  New  World,  p.  337. 

m  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  350. 


52  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

chant.  The  number  of  Spaniards  on  the  Islands  was  always 
small  and  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  the  military  and 
priestly  classes.129  Other  foreigners  were  excluded. 

During  the  four  centuries  of  the  Spanish  occupancy  of 
the  Islands,  there  grew  up  a  Spanish  mestizo  mixture  that 
numbers  at  present  about  two  per  cent  of  the  population. 
A  small  per  cent  of  this  mixed-blood  race  is  the  product  of 
intermarriage  between  the  Spanish  Creoles,  who  now  number 
about  three  hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  the  population, 
and  the  native  women  of  mixed  parentage.  The  bulk  of  the 
mixed-blood  race,  however,  owe  their  origin  to  less  conven 
tional  and  less  permanent  unions.  Another  considerable 
number  of  the  mixed-blood  race  trace  their  ancestry  back  to 
a  priestly  origin.  Officials  and  other  Spaniards  usually 
formed  no  permanent  unions  with  the  native  girls. 

The  second  mixed-blood  race,  the  Chinese  mestizos,  num 
ber  about  two  per  cent  of  the  population.  They  are  more 
often,  perhaps  generally,  the  offspring  of  a  fairly  perma 
nent  union. 

The  civil  and  social  status  of  the  various  races  and  half- 
races  follows  for  the  most  part  the  lines  of  race  and  color. 
Color  prejudice  and  class  hatred  are  everywhere  a  factor 
in  the  situation.  At  one  extreme  of  the  social  scale  are  the 
foreign  white  and  the  white  Creoles.  Below  them  in  the  social 
scale,  come  the  Spanish  half-breeds,  envious  of  the  classes 
above  them,  contemptuous  of  those  below.  Every  mixture 
of  foreign  blood  has  tended  to  raise  them  above  the  native. 
Now,  as  during  the  last  two  centuries  of  Spanish  rule,  they 
are  the  dominant  class  in- the  native  affairs.  The  prominent 

129  In  1820  there  was  one  white  to  1,600  natives.  The  whites  were 
mostly  in  Manila.  In  1864  there  was  a  total  of  4,050  Spaniards  in  the 
Islands.  Of  these  3,280  were  government  officials,  500  were  clergy,  200 
were  landed  proprietors  and  70  were  merchants. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  53 

Filipinos  are  probably  without  exception  from  this  mixed- 
blood  class.130  "No  Filipino  ever  has  become  known  in 
America,  either  through  his  attainments  or  his  political 
prominence,  who  was  more  than  a  few  generations  removed 
from  a  foreign  ancestor."131  It  is  from  this  class  that  most 
of  the  higher  Filipino  officials  come.  They  are  the  discon 
tented  and  troublesome  element  in  the  population.132  "They 
are  always  hoping  for  recognition  as  equals  by  the  foreign 
ers  with  whom  they  are  brought  into  contact  and  to  whom 
they  may  be  related."133  They  despise  the  native  element 
and  ignore  the  ties  by  which  they  are  bound  to  them.  The 
present  administrative  problem  in  the  Islands  is  to  prevent 
the  half-breed  official  from  oppressing  the  despised  Malay.13 
The  vigorous,  thrifty,  enterprising  Chinese  share  with  the 
Chinese  half-breeds  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  the  Islands. 
The  Chinese  are  despised  by  all  the  races,  even  by  the  Chinese 
half-breed  and  the  Filipino,  as  bitterly  as  by  the  Creoles  and 

180  "Rizal,  the  most  famous  man — and  one  might  say  the  only  famous 
man — produced  by  the  islands  was  the  direct  descendant  of  a  Chinese 
trader,  and  his  mother  was  of  Filipino-Chinese-Spanish  descent  with  a 
little  Japanese  blood."  Carl  Crow,  "What  About  the  Filipinos?"  World's 
Work,  Vol.  26,  p.  519.  See,  also,  J.  A.  Robertson,  "Notes  from  the 
Philippines,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  3,  p.  470,  and  Keller, 
Colonization,  p.  350  f.  n.  The  best  discussion  of  Rizal's  personality  is 
by  Ferdinand  Blumentritt,  Internationals  Archiv  fur  Ethnographic, 
Bd.  X,  Heft  2.  There  is  a  brief  abstract  of  this  article  in  Pop.  Sci. 
Mo.,  July,  1902.  An  inaccurate  and  laudatory  appreciation  by  his  per 
sonal  friend,  Sir  Hugh  Clifford,  appeared  in  Blackwood's  Magazine, 
Vol.  172,  pp.  620-38.  Rizal  married  a  white  woman  of  English  birth. 
See  James  A.  LeRoy,  The  American*  in  the  Philippines,  p.  117  f.  n. 

Sergio  Osmena,  former  speaker  of  the  Philippine  Assembly,  was  a 
Chinese  mestizo.  Crow,  World's  Work,  Vol.  26,  p.  523. 

m  Ibid.,  Vol.  26,  p.  519. 

182  LeRoy,  The  Americans  in  the  Philippines,  p.  76. 

M1  Crow,  World's  Work,  Vol.  26,  p.  519. 

134  Charles  E.  Woodruff,  "Some  Laws  of  Racial  and  Intellectual  De 
velopment,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  3,  p.  175, 


54  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

foreign  whites,  and  this  is  a  situation  of  long  standing.13' 
The  quiet,  industrious  Chinese  half-breed  is  perhaps  th^ 
best  man  on  the  Islands.136  He  is  classed  with  and  despised 
as  a  Chinaman  by  the  races  above  him,  while,  in  his  turn,  h-2 
shares  with  the  white  the  white  man's  bitter  hatred  for  the 
Chinese  and  contempt  for  the  Filipino.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
social  scale,  comes  the  Filipino  who  is  economically  inefficient 
and  despised  by  every  one,  while  he  in  turn  hates  in  varying 
degrees  the  various  classes  above  him. 

138 ".  .  .  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  the  Filipinos  and  even  the  Chinese 
half-breeds  (mestizos  de  sangley)  exhibited  this  hatred  in  as  bitter  a 
form  as  did  the  Spanish  themselves."  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  355.  L<-,- 
Roy,  The  Americans  in  the  Philippines,  p.  279,  speaks  of  the  "tra 
ditional  hostility  between  the  Filipinos  and  Chinese." 

138 ".  .  .  During  the  latter  days  of  my  residence  in  the  Islands  in  1905 
Governor-General  Wright  one  day  told  me  that  he  had  recently  person 
ally  received  from  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Filipinos  of  the  time, 
and  a  member  of  the  Insular  Civil  Commission,  the  statement  'that 
there  was  not  a  single  prominent  and  dominant  family  among  the  chris 
tianized  Filipinos  which  did  not  possess  Chinese  blood.'  The  voice  and 
the  .will  of  the  Filipinos  to-day  is  the  voice  and  the  will  of  these  brainy, 
industrious,  rapidly  developing  men  whose  judgment  in  time  the  world 
is  bound  to  respect.  .  .  ."  A.  E.  Jenks,  "Assimilation  in  the  Philippines, 
as  Interpreted  in  Terms  of  Assimilation  in  America,"  American  Jour 
nal  Sociology,  Vol.  19,  p.  783.  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  t, 
p.  397,  says  that  the  Chinese  half-breed  in  the  Philippines  is  superior 
to  the  European  half-breed.  See,  also,  LeRoy,  The  Americans  in  the 
Philippines,  p.  76. 


CHAPTER  III 

MIXED-BLOOD    RACES    (CONCLUDED) 

In  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Santo  Domingo 

THE  Islands  of  the  West  Indies  were  colonized  by  Spain 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century.    Dur 
ing  this  period  Spain  was  at  the  height  of  her  national  power, 
and  the  Islands  were  the  centers  of  trade  and  commercial 
activity. 

The  Spaniards  found  the  Islands  inhabited  by  a  numerous 
population  of  peaceful  Indian  tribes  whom  the}^  conquered, 
enslaved,  converted,  and  worked  to  death  on  the  plantations 
and  in  the  mines  on  the  mainland.  So  disastrous  to  the 
natives  was  the  Spanish  policy  of  slavery,  concubinage,  and 
Catholicism  that,  with  the  exception  of  some  infusion  of 
Indian  blood  in  the  Spanish  part  of  Santo  Domingo  and 
in  Cuba,  the  native  element  is  totally  extinct.1 

It  was  to  save  the  native  element  from  total  extinction  that 

1  The  population  of  Santo  Domingo  decreased  two-thirds  in  the  first 

three  years  of  Spanish  occupancy.  The  population  was  estimated  as 
follows : 

1492  3,000,000 

1508  G0,000 

1510  46,000 

1572  20,000 

1574  14,000 

1648  under  500 

A  similar  fate  befell  all  of  the  other  Islands.  See  A.  G.  Keller,  Colo 
nization,  p.  226. 

55 


56  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  introduction  of  Negroes  was  first  recommended.  The 
Spaniards  had  intermixed  freely  with  the  natives  during  the 
two  centuries  that  their  extermination  was  in  process.  With 
the  Negroes  they  intermixed  with  almost  equal  readiness.2 
A  mulatto  race  soon  sprang  up  and  increased  rapidly  in 
numbers.  In  Porto  Rico,  at  the  time  of  its  cession  to  the 
United  States  in  1898,  approximately  one-third  of  the  pop 
ulation  was  returned  as  colored.3  The  colored  element  in 
cluded  a  few  Chinese  and  the  Negro-white  mixture  as  well 
as  the  pure  Negroes.  Of  the  total  returned  as  colored 
eighty-four  per  cent  were  of  mixed-blood.  In  Cuba  the  per 
cent  of  mixed-bloods  in  the  Negro  population  is  yet  larger 
as  is  to  be  expected  from  the  fact  that  the  ratio  of  Negroes 
to  the  white  population  is  much  smaller.4  From  the  other 
Islands,  the  Spanish  were  expelled  before  the  mixture  had 
gone  so  far. 

Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  Santo  Domingo,  Spanish  until  1898 
and  in  spirit  and  civilization  Spanish  still,  have  the  race 
problem  in  much  the  same  form  as  it  is  found  on  the  main 
land  of  South  America.  The  mixed-blood  race  is  of  Spanish, 
Negro,  and  Indian  blood.  On  the  mainland,  the  Indian  blood 
is  vastly  in  excess  of  the  Negro ;  on  the  Islands,  it  is  the 
Negro  blood  that  predominates ;  the  Indian  blood  is  but  a 

2  Johnston  attributes  the  fact  that  the  Spanish  ha\re  never  shown  the 
same  repugnance  as  have  the  Northern  nations  of  Europe  to  sexual 
intercourse  with  Negroes,  to  the  ancient  strain  of  Negro  blood  in  their 
ethnic  composition.  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  "The  World-position  of 
the  Negro  and  Negroid,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  pp.  329-30. 

Total  953,243 

White  589,462 

Colored  363,817 

4 White  1,067,354  or  67.9  per  cent;  Colored  505,443  or  32.1  per  cent. 
The  few  Chinese  are  here  counted  as  white  as  has  been  the  Spanish  cus 
tom  in  all  previous  censuses.  United  States  War  Department  Census  of 
Cuba,  1899,  p.  97. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  57 

trace. 

In  Cuba  the  opportunities  and  personal  privileges  of  the 
Negro  people  have  been  somewhat  greater  than  in  most 
other  parts  of  the  West  Indies.  They  are  and  always  have 
been  sufficiently  below  the  whites  in  numbers  effectually  to 
prevent  any  wide-spread  reversion  to  their  ancestral  Afri 
can  customs.  During  the  slave  period,  though  cases  of  bar 
barous  mistreatment  were  not  infrequent,  the  Spanish  laws 
were  highly  favorable  to  the  slave.  It  was  easy  for  him  to 
purchase  his  freedom  and  there  were  a  large  number  of  free 
Negroes  throughout  the  slavery  period.5  After  the  aboli 
tion  of  slavery  in  1880,  the  rights  of  the  black  man  were 
of  course  much  greater  and  his  status  much  higher,  the 
Spanish  government  giving  the  same  consideration  to  the 
colored  as  to  the  white  Cuban.  The  rebellions  of  1868-78 
and  of  1895-98  and  the  threatened  uprising  in  1906  all 
operated  to  raise  the  status  of  the  Negro.  At  present  all 
civil,  military  and  ecclesiastical  positions  and  honors  are 
open  to  members  of  the  race.6 

The  mulattos  have  responded  to  these  conditions  in  a  way 
that  differentiates  them  from  the  Negroes  elsewhere.  Though 
the  race  is  behind  the  whites  in  education,  morals,  and  eco 
nomic  advancement,  many  individuals  have  made  advances 
along  these  lines.  They  are  found  in  all  professions  and 

8                Census  Year  Free  Colored  Slaves 

1775  41.0  59.0 

1792  45.6  54.4 

1817  36.7  63.3 

1827  27.1  72.9 

1841  25.9  74.1 

1861  37.4  62.9 

1877  55.7  44.3 

Ibid.,  p.  98.     See,  also,  H.  C.  Morris,  The  History  of  Colonization, 
Vol.  I,  p.  278. 

«  U.  S.  War  Dept.  Census  of  Cuba,  1899,  p.  69. 


58  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

in  all  trades.  Bullard  says :  7  "Though  found  in  more  pro 
fessions  than  in  America,  they  are  less  industrious  than  here. 
They  show  disposition  but  no  aptness  for  commerce,  and 
their  inclination  in  this  direction  must  perhaps  be  looked 
upon  more  as  a  desire  to  avoid  the  hard  labor  of  the  fields 
than  as  any  serious  effort  to  try  fortune  in  trade."  How 
ever  this  may  be,  a  few  have  distinguished  themselves  8  and 
a  goodly  number  have  made  a  reasonable  success ;  they  show 
more  self-respect  and  self-possession  than  is  found  elsewhere 
among  Negro  people.  Speaking  of  this  self-respecting  atti 
tude  Bullard  says : 9 

.  .  .  Everywhere — in  public,  in  the  streets,  in  the  the 
atres,  on  steamers  and  cars — our  man  of  negro  blood 
carries  himself  with  confidence  and  self-possession.  It 
is  his  marked  characteristic  in  Cuba.  Looking  at  him. 
one  cannot  but  be  impressed  with  his  great  gain  in 
dignity  in  consequence.  He  feels  himself  a  worthier 
man.  In  rural  guard,  police  and  other  official  posi 
tions  occupied  by  him,  he  conducts  himself  with  steadi 
ness  and  dignity.  Placing  him  in  such  offices  seems 
not  in  Cuba,  as  in  America,  to  make  him  foolish  and 
giddy.  These  are* noteworthy  things  for  Cuba  and 
the  negro  race. 

During  the  slavery  period  the  black  and  mulatto  females 
sought  the  white  and  disdained  the  black  men  as  fathers  of 
their  children.  So  extensive  and  long  continued  has  been 
this  intercrossing  that  it  is  now  impossible  to  draw  any  clear 
distinction  between  the  races.  At  either  extreme  the  colors 
are  unmixed.  The  aristocracy  and  the  middle-class  towns- 

7  Lieutenant-Colonel  R.  L.  Bullard,  U.  S.  A.,  "The  Cuban  Negro," 
North  American  Review,  Vol.  184,  p.  629. 

•Antonio  Maceo  of  the  Cuban  Army,  1895-98,  was  a  mulatto.  See 
U.  S.  War  Dept.  Census  of  Cuba,  1899,  p.  69. 

8 North  American  Review,  Vol.  184,  p.  626. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  59 

folk  are  quite  free  from  Negro  intermixture;  some  blacks, 
especially  the  rural  folk  of  the  interior,  are  still  of  unmixed 
African  blood.  But  between  the  extremes  is  an  unbroken 
gradation  through  all  the  tints  from  the  swarthy  complexion 
of  the  Spaniard  to  the  glossy  black  of  the  West  African 
Negro.  Yet  few  of  those  who  pass  as  Negroes  are  without 
some  admixture  of  the  white  man's  blood.  "Few  of  the  Ne 
groes  are  black ;  some  of  the  blackest  have  the  regular  feat 
ures  of  the  Caucasian ;  and  racial  mixtures  are  everywhere 
evidenced  by  color  of  skin  and  by  physiognomy."10 

There  is  no  hard  and  fast  color  line  separating  the  col 
ored  and  white  races  of  the  Cuban  population.  In  politics, 
the  Negro  is  the  equal  of  the  white  man.  In  resorts,  in 
places  of  amusement,  and  in  public  conveyances,  there  is  no 
separation  of  the  races.  Negroes  have  held  some  minor 
political  offices  and  members  of  some  of  the  higher  govern 
mental  bodies  have  been  tinged  with  Negro  blood.  In  social 
affairs  there  is  little  ostensible  inequality  but  only  in  the 
army,  if  anywhere,  has  there  been  recognized  any  condition 
of  real  social  equality.11  Socially  and  politically,  however, 
the  Negro  is  constantly  losing  ground  as  the  white  race 
increases  in  numbers.12  Nowhere  else  in  the  West  Indies 
is  there  so  much  tenderness  on  the  point  of  color.  Bullard 
says  on  this  point:13 

10  Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Cuba.     See,  also,  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston, 
The  Negro  in  the  New   World,  p.  59,   and   William   Z.   Ripley,  "Race 
Problems  in  Cuba,"  Publications  of  the  American  Statistical  Associa 
tion,  Vol.  7,  pp.  85-89. 

11  U.  S.  War  Dept.,  Census  of  Cuba,  1899,  p.  69. 

""Yet  the  negro  is  losing  ground,  politically  and  socially,  and  unless 
he  is  content  with  his  present  status  of  farmer,  labourer,  petty  trades 
man,  minor  employe,  and  domestic  servant,  there  will  arise  a  'colour' 
question  here  as  in  the  United  States."  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New 
World,  p.  60. 

13  North  American  Review,  Vol.  184,  p.  628. 


60  .      The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

.  .  .  The  earliest  negroes  brought  to  Cuba  had  a  sad, 
faint  little  belief  that  after  death  they  should  be  born 
again  into  another  land,  white  men.  "Negro"  and  even 
"mulatto"  must  be  softened  into  "gente  de  color"  .  .  . 
and  "pardo"  .  .  .  while  the  house-maid  becomes 
"Seflorita"  ...  and  the  cook  "Senora."  .  .  .  These, 
and  the  tendency,  in  the  face  of  manifest  aversion,  to 
push  themselves  as  equals  upon  another  race,  are  dis 
couraging  signs  of  weakness,  showing  a  lack  of  that 
genuine  independence,  self-respect  and  pride  that  indi 
cate  strength  and  real  worth. 

It  is,  however,  between  the  blacks  and  the  mixed-bloods 
that  the  lines  of  social  demarcation  are  most  clearly  drawn. 
The  mixed-blood  man  desires  to  be  white,  and  imitates  the 
white  man's  virtues  and  the  white  man's  faults.  Bullard  14 
points  out  the  difference  in  the  social  life  of  the  blacks  and 
the  mixed-bloods  and  illustrates  the  difference  by  a  descrip 
tion  of  the  two  dances  which  are  more  or  less  peculiar  to  the 
Negroes  of  the  Island: 

There  are  two  dances,  the  "Congo"  and  the  "Creole," 
both  protracted  perhaps  through  many  nights.  The 
first  is  a  memory  or  tradition  of  Africa.  In  it,  men 
and  women,  black,  real  negroes,  sing  the  songs  and 
dance  the  dances  of  Africa  to  the  sound  of  rattles  and 
rude  drums,  genuine  savage  instruments.  The  dance  is 
always  significant.  It  takes  many  forms  of  war,  love, 
tradition  and  con  jury,  yet  it  is  most  addressed  to  the 
sexual  passions  and  can  but  lead  to  their  indulgence. 
The  "Congo"  may  be  seen  to-day  in  any  country  town 
in  the  cane  regions. 

The  "Creole"  aspires  to  be  very  different.  It  is  a 
modified  waltz  by  the  more  mixed  generation,  far  less 
interesting,  more  modern,  but  not  more  moral  than 
the  "Congo."  One  needs  but  to  see  it  to  be  impressed 
with  its  sensuality. 
1  North  American  Review,  Vol.  184,  pp.  625-26. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  61 

In  Haiti 

After  some  two  centuries  of  occupancy  Spain  lost  Haiti 
to  the  French.  It  remained  a  French  province  for  nearly  a 
hundred  years,  during  which  time  the  mulattoes  came  to  be 
a  distinct  caste  and  to  occupy  a  separate  status  in  the  com 
munity.  On  the  one  hand  they  were  generally  free  from 
bondage ;  on  the  other  they  were  excluded  from  citizenship. 
When,  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  slaves  were 
liberated,  the  mutual  antipathies  of  the  whites,  blacks,  and 
mulattoes  blossomed  into  a  triangular  warfare,  the  final 
result  of  which  was  the  massacre  of  the  entire  European  pop 
ulation.15  After  several  costly  and  unsuccessful  attempts 
on  the  part  of  the  French  and  later  of  the  English  to  restore 
orderly  government,  the  Island  was  abandoned,  became  a 
black,  independent  state,  and  has  been  for  a  century  free  to 
work  out  its  salvation  without  interference. 

The  abandonment  of  the  Island  by  the  civilized  powers 
so  soon  after  the  emancipation  of  the  blacks  was  fatal  to 
Haitian  prosperity.  The  civil  wars  had  destroyed  property 
and  capital  of  every  description  and  left  labor  in  a  hope 
lessly  demoralized  state.  The  effect  was  as  disastrous  polit 
ically  as  it  was  economically:  the  political  history  of  the 
hundred  years  is  simply  a  narrative  of  revolutions.  The 
country,  nominally  a  republic,  has  in  practice  alternated 
between  anarchy  and  military  despotism.  The  actual  power 
has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  president  who  almost  always 
rode  into  office  as  the  momentary  favorite  of  the  major  divi 
sion  of  the  army.16  Below  the  forms  of  civilized  government 

15  J.  A.  Froude,  The  English  in  the  West  Indies,  pp.  182-83. 

19 ".  .  .  Scarcely  a  President  in  the  history  of  Haiti  has  not  been  a 
military  man,  and  the  favorite  leader  for  the  time  being,  of  the  major 
portion  of  the  army.  .  .  ."  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World, 
p.  197. 


62  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

there  always  has  existed  in  every  department  of  the  official 
life  every  conceivable  form  of  political  corruption,  official 
dishonesty,  and  judicial  murder.  "Justice  is  venal  and  the 
police  brutal  and  inefficient,"  17  The  Roman  Catholic  relig 
ion  has  degenerated  into  a  thin  disguise  for  the  practice  of 
the  rites  of  Voodooism  in  which  cannibalism  and  the  sacri 
fice  of  children  in  the  Serpent's  honor  has,  at  least  at  times, 
played  an  important  part.18  The  forms  of  marriage  are 
disregarded  or  forgotten.19  Polygamy  prevails  in  the  in 
terior  and  the  frequent  orgiastic  dances  are  accompanied  by 
promiscuous  sexual  debauchery.20  On  the  whole,  the  Island, 
during  the  century  of  independence  and  self-government,  has 
made  no  progress  along  any  line,  has  retrogressed  in  some 

17  Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Haiti. 

18  See    H.    V.    H.    Prichard,    Where   Black   Rules    White;   a   Journey 
Across  and  About  Hayti,  Chapter  IV.     For  a  more  apologetic  account 
see  General  Le"gitime,  "Some  General  Considerations  of  the  People  and 
Government  of  Haiti,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  pp.  183-84. 

*  "In  most  of  the  country  districts  polygamy  is  openly  practiced. 
The  rite  of  marriage — civil  and  religious — is  probably  confined  to  about 
an  eighth  of  the  total  adult  population.  .  .  ."  Johnston,  The  Negro 
in  the  New  World,  p.  194. 

20  "The  2,500,000  Haitian  peasants  are  passionately  fond  of  dancing, 
will  even  sometimes  dance  almost  or  quite  naked.  And  following  on 
this  choregraphic  exercise  is  much  immorality.  .  .  ."  Johnston,  The 
Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  194.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  state 
ment  with  his  description  of  the  dance  of  the  Brazilian  Negro.  "The 
dances  to  which  negro  slaves  were  trained  .  .  .  usually  began  with  a 
slow  movement  of  two  persons,  who  approached  each  other  with  a  shy 
and  diffident  air,  and  then  receded  bashful  and  embarrassed.  By  de 
grees,  the  time  of  the  music  increased,  the  diffidence  wore  off,  and  the 
dance  concluded  with  'indecencies  not  fit  to  be  seen  nor  described.' 
Sometimes  it  was  of  a  different  character,  attended  by  jumping,  shout 
ing,  and  throwing  their  arms  over  each  other's  heads,  and  assuming  the 
most  fierce  and  stern  aspects.  The  indecent  display  was  a  'dance  of 
love,'  but  the  shouting  dance  was  a  mimicry  of  war."  Ibid.,  p.  93.  As 
a  further  stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  race  and  the  dance  compare  the 
American  Negro's  "cake-walk." 


Mixed-Blood  Races  63 

lines  and  in  others  the  "republic  has  gone  back  to  the  lowest 
type  of  African  barbarism."  21 

No  census  ever  has  been  taken,  and  consequently  there  are 
no  accurate  figures  as  to  the  population.  The  population, 
however,  is  made  up  almost  entirely  of  Negroes,  about  nine- 
tenths  of  whom  are  full-blood  Africans.  The  ten  per  cent 
of  mulattoes  is  said  to  be  a  rapidly  diminishing  class.22  The 
number  of  whites  is  very  small  and  of  negligible  influence  in 
the  affairs  of  the  country.  They  are,  by  a  provision  of  the 
constitution,  prohibited  from  holding  real  estate.23 

There  is  a  sharp  contrast  between  the  black  and  the  mu 
latto  inhabitants.  The  blacks,  who  form  the  peasantry  of 
the  country,  are  peaceable,  kindly,  and  hospitable  people. 
They  are  constitutionally  lazy,24  almost  entirely  unedu 
cated  25  and  they  preserve  their  ancient  snake  worship  and 
cannibalistic  rites  under  the  forms  of  Roman  Catholicism.28 
Their  sex  relations  are  of  a  frankly  natural  sort.  "Mar- 

21  Chambers'  Envy clop cfdia:  Hayti.  See,  also,  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica:  Haiti,  and  New  International  Encyclopaedia:  Haiti. 

23  Encyclopedia  Britannica:  Haiti.  For  a  contrary  opinion  see  Earl 
Finch,  "The  Effects  of  Racial  Miscegenation,"  Inter-Racial  Problems, 
pp.  109-10. 

M  Johnson's  Cyclopaedia:  Haiti. 

34  "The  island  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  the  world,  and  if  it  had  an 
enlightened  and  stable  government,  an  energetic  people,  and  a  little  capi 
tal,  its  agricultural  possibilities  would  be  boundless."  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica:  Haiti. 

28  "The  plain  fact  remains  that  something  like  2,500,000  out  of  the 
3,000,000  of  Haitians  cannot  read  or  write,  and  are  as  ignorant  as  un 
reclaimed  natives  of  Africa."  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World, 
p.  187. 

"But  what  use  is  it  talking  of  the  'country'  doing  this  or  willing  that 
when  no  more  than  200,000  out  of  3,000,000  Haitians  have  the  slightest 
approach  to  education?  .  .  ."  Ibid.,  p.  204. 

28  "At  least  two  out  of  the  three  millions  of  Haitian  negroes  are  only 
Christians  in  the  loose  statistics  of  geographers.  They  are  still  African 
pagans,  .  .  ."  Ibid.,  p.  193. 


64  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

riage  is  neither  frequent  nor  legally  prescribed."  27  Polyg 
amy  is  openly  practiced  and  the  African  dances  lead  to  a 
more  or  less  wholesale  and  promiscuous  sexual  indulgence. 
They  speak  a  patois  of  French  origin  which  is  known  locally 
as  creole.  The  one  man  of  first-class  ability  produced  by 
the  black  group  was  the  insurgent  chief,  Frai^ois  Domi 
nique  Toussaint.28 

The  mulattoes  are  economically,  socially,  and  intellectu 
ally  far  in  advance  of  the  black  Negroes.  They  compose  the 
professional  classes  and  own  most  of  the  property.  They 
are  frequently  educated  in  Paris  and  many  do  not  materially 
differ  in  education  from  Europeans  of  the  same  class.29  In 
regard  to  the  educational  system,  Johnston  says : 30 

.  .  .  Unhappily,  the  weak  point  in  all  this  superior 
education  of  the  Haitians  is  its  utterly  unpractical 
relation  to  a  useful  and  profitable  existence  in  the 
West  Indies.  .  .  .  But  the  education  which  she  gives 
to  the  youth  of  Haiti  is  perversely  useless  in  its  na 
ture.  It  is  apparently  only  adapted  to  life  in  Paris 
or  in  a  French  provincial  town,  and  the  adepts  thus 
trained  show  a  singular  tendency  on  returning  to  Haiti 
to  cast  off  their  European  learning.  Young  doctors, 
sent  to  France  for  education  in  medical  science,  come 
back  and  discard  any  modern  aseptic  or  antiseptic  the 
ories  in  their  practice,  in  fact  almost  revert  to  the  po 
sition  of  negro  charlatans.  Lawyers  can  think  of  noth 
ing  but  the  meticulous  intricacies  of  the  Code  Napoleon, 

"Encyclopedia  Britannica:  Haiti. 

18  In  middle  life  Toussaint  acquired  the  nickname  L'Ouverture  be 
cause,  having  lost  the  most  of  his  front  teeth,  there  was  a  marked  open 
ing  in  his  mouth  when  he  spoke.  See  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New 
World,  p.  157.  Toussaint  was  a  leader  of  the  Negroes  and  is  generally 
considered  to  be  a  full-blood  Negro.  That  this  is  the  case,  however, 
is  at  least  doubtful. 

39 New   International  Encyclopedia:    Haiti. 

"Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  188, 


Mixed-Blood  Races  65 

and  seem  incapable  of  devising  a  simple  civil  and  crim 
inal  jurisprudence  applicable  to  the  essentially  Afri 
can  race  which  inhabits  Haiti.  .  .  . 

In  dress,  manners,  and  habits  of  life,  they  imitate  the  French 
and  exaggerate  upon  their  models.31  Though  comparatively 
few  in  numbers,  they  occupy  most  of  the  prominent  positions 
in  the  political  and  governmental  affairs  of  the  Island  and 
generally  manage  to  control  the  political  situation.  The  ma 
jority  of  Haiti's  score  or  more  of  Presidents,  and  all  of  the 
better  ones,  have  been  mulattoes.32  They  form  the  more  en 
lightened  and  less  brutal  class  of  the  population. 

Between  the  two  groups  there  exists  and  has  existed 
throughout  the  entire  history  of  the  Republic  the  bitterest 
type  of  race  hatred.  The  hatred  of  the  Negro  for  the  mu 
latto  is  equaled  only  by  the  mulatto's  contempt  for  the 
Negro.33  The  mulattoes  hate  and  despise  the  black  man 
with  all  the  bitterness  of  a  superior  caste  which  lacks  the 
power,  but  not  the  desire,  to  reduce  the  black  man  to  the 
status  of  a  slave.34 

In  Jamaica 

Jamaica  became  an  English  province  in  1658.  The  cen 
tury  and  a  half  of  Spanish  occupancy,  except  for  the  anni 
hilation  of  the  native  Arawak  Indians,  had  no  permanent 

n"As  to  the  dress  of  the  two  hundred  thousand  educated  people, 
though  less  exotic  than  it  was,  it  is  still,  as  in  Liberia — a  worship  of 
the  tall  hat  and  frock-coat.  In  the  streets  of  Port-au-Prince,  as  of 
Monrovia,  in  a  temperature  95  degrees  in  the  shade  and  something  under 
boiling-point  in  the  sun,  you  may  see  Haitian  statesmen  cavorting  about 
in  black  silk  hats  of  portentous  height  and  glossiness,  with  frock-coats 
down  to  their  knees,  and  wearing  lemon  kid  gloves.  .  .  ."  Ibid.,  p.  190. 

83  Prichard,  Where  Black  Rules  White,  p.  82. 

M  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  159.  See,  also,  Ency* 
clopcfdia  Britannica:  Haiti. 

34  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New   World,  p.  159. 


66  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

effect  upon  the  Island.  When  taken  by  the  British,  the 
total  population,  slave  and  free,  did  not  number  above  three 
thousand.  After  the  formation  of  the  Royal  African  Com 
pany  in  1672,  with  a  monopoly  on  the  slave  trade,  Jamaica 
became  one  of  the  great  slave  marts  of  the  world.  The  Eng*- 
lish  emancipation  act  was  passed  in  1834  and,  subject  to  a 
short  apprenticeship,  the  slaves  were  free. 

The  present  total  population  of  Jamaica  is  approximately 
830,000.  Of  these,  15,000,  in  round  numbers,  are  pure 
white,  17,000  are  East  Indian  coolies,  and  about  2,000  are 
Chinese ;  a  total  of  some  34,000  non-African  people.  The 
remaining  796,000  are  Negro  and  Negro  mixtures.35  The 
mixed-bloods  number  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  number  of 
the  race. 

The  various  classes  in  the  population  seem  to  correspond 
exactly  to  the  race  and  color  lines.  Needham  36  says  that 

.  .  .  The  inhabitants  are  divided  into  three  classes 
which  are  comparable,  except  as  to  numbers,  to  the 
three  classes  existing  in  England.  The  pure  whites 
correspond  to  the  aristocracy;  the  "coloured"  .  .  . 
are  in  a  social  sense  relatively  like  the  English  middle 
class ;  the  darks  or  blacks — meaning  those  who  have 
no  evidence  of  white  ancestry — are  the  laboring  or 
peasant  class.  These  three  mingle  freely  in  many  of 
89  Races  Numbers  Percentage 

White  15,605  1.88 

Colored  163,201  19.63 

Black  630,181  75.80 

East  Indians  17,380  2.09 

Chinese  2,111  0.25 

Not  specified  2,905  0.35 

Total  831,383  100,00 

Census  of  Jamaica,  1911. 

89  Charles  K.  Needham,  "A  Comparison  of  Some  Conditions  in  Jamaica 
with  those  in  the  United  States,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol. 
4,  p.  190. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  67 

the  affairs  of  life,  but  in  certain  other  matters  there  is 
a  distinction  well  recognized  by  an  individual  when 
coming  in  contact  with  one  who  is  his  social  supe 
rior.  .  .  . 

There  is  a  hard  and  fast  color  line  between  the  whites  and 
the  Negroes  and  mulattoes. 

The  blacks  are  the  laboring  class.  There  has  been  some 
effort  to  settle  them  as  independent  peasant  proprietors  but 
the  effort  has  not  been  a  marked  success.  The  conditions 
of  life  are  such  as  to  require  but  little  work  in  order  to 
live;  the  Negroes  do  the  little  that  is  required.37  They  are 
without  education  or  the  desire  for  education.38  They  have 
little  part  in  the  government  and  in  general  show  little  de 
sire  to  participate.39  The  relations  of  the  sexes  are  of  the 
most  elastic  sort,  well  over  half  of  the  births  being  illegiti 
mate.40 

"It  was  the  impossibility  of  getting  the  Negroes  to  do  any  regular 
work  that  led  to  the  importation  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Indian  coolies. 
Froude,  The  English  in  the  West  Indies,  pp.  50,  73  if. 

88  "At  the  present  day  only  about  one-quarter  of  the  total  colored 
population  of  Jamaica  can  read  and  write."  The  fact  that  there  is 
little  agricultural  or  industrial  education  suited  to  the  race  offered  in 
the  schools  perhaps  accounts  in  part  for  their  indifference  to  education. 
Though  free  and  liberally  supported  by  the  government,  the  education 
is  not  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  race.  See  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the 
New  World,  p.  270. 

89 "The  black  does  not  want  representative  government;  he  prefers  to 
rely  on  the  impartial,  despotic  rule  of  trained  officials,  .  .  ."  "The  blacks 
always  prefer  a  white  man.  .  ."  William  Thorp,  "How  Jamaica 
Solves  the  Negro  Problem,"  World's  Work,  Vol.  8,  p.  4910. 

40 "...  No  negress  could  bear  the  idea  of  growing  to  old  age  without 
being  a  mother;  she  would  deem  herself  slighted.  Therefore  the  negro 
and  mulatto  men  are  much  run  after;  the  marriage  rate  is  not  only  low, 
but  tends  to  decrease  (it  is  just  now  about  3.8  per  1000  persons),  and 
with  its  decrease  rises  the  percentage  of  illegitimate  births,  which  now 
[1906]  stands  at  the  figure  of  sixty-five  children  out  of  every  hundred." 
Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  275, 


68  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  mulattoes  are  officially  separated  from  the  blacks  by 
applying  to  them  the  special  racial  designation  coloured. 
This  class  includes  the  majority  of  those  engaged  in  the 
trades  and  professions  and  they  fill  most  of  the  minor  gov 
ernmental  positions  and  some  of  the  higher  positions  in  the 
public  service.41  The  press  of  the  country,  though  owned 
by  white  men,  is,  for  the  most  part,  run  by  mulattoes. 
Johnston  42  states  that 

The  negroid  in  this  island  enters  into  all  the  profes 
sions  and  careers  and  fills  nine-tenths  of  the  posts  un 
der  Government.  The  coloured  population,  besides 
residing  as  cultivators  in  the  country,  frequents  the 
towns  and  earns  a  living  as  doctors,  dentists,  minis 
ters  of  religion,  teachers,  waiters,  tradesmen,  skilled  ar 
tisans,  clerks,  musicians,  postal  employes,  press  report 
ers,  the  superior  servants  of  the  State  railways,  over 
seers  of  plantations,  hotel-keepers.  .  .  .  The  pure  Ne 
gro  in  Jamaica  is  mainly  a  peasant  and  a  countryman. 

Between  the  blacks  and  the  mulattoes,  there  is  a  sharp 
social  as  well  as  official  distinction.43  The  social  position 
of  a  member  of  the  race  is  conditioned  by  the  lightness  of 
his  skin  and  the  absence  of  other  racial  marks.44  The  mu- 

41  "On  the  Legislative  Council  of  to-day  only  four  of  the  elected 
members  are  of  unmixed  Nordic-European  descent;  four  are  of  well- 
known  Jamaican- Jewish  families  descended  from  the  Spanish  and  Por 
tuguese  Jews  of  Guiana  and  Brazil;  om  member  is  an  absolute  negro 
(of  Bahaman  birth),  and  the  remainder  (five)  are  octoroons  and  mu 
lattoes  of  Jamaican  birth."  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World, 
p.  268. 

"Ibid.,  p.  280. 

43 ".  .  .  I  am  told  that  in  the  West  Indies  the  'coloured'  man  despises 
the  'nigger'  and  feels  himself  immeasurably  his  social  superior."  Wil 
liam  Archer,  Thro  Afro-America,  p.  273.  See,  however,  Froude,  The 
English  in  the  West  Indies,  p.  155,  for  the  attitude  of  the  blacks  toward 
the  mixed-bloods. 

*•  See  Needham,  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  4,  pp.  193-94. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  69 

lattoes  refuse  to  intermarry  with  the  blacks  45  except  in 
cases  where  the  black  individual  is  possessed  of  large  fortune 
or  holds  a  high  government  position;  even  in  this  case  the 
children  of  the  union  will  be  barred,  because  of  their  color 
and  features,  from  the  upper  class  mulatto  society.46 

The  same  views  on  the  subject  of  intermarriage  of  the 
races  are  held  by  the  white  people  of  Jamaica  as  are  held 
by  the  white  people  of  the  Southern  United  States.  Mixed 
marriages  are  approved  by  the  ambitious  mulattoes  and  by 
the  "whites  by  law."  The  exceptionally  light-colored  girls 
of  this  latter  class  are  occasionally  able  to  secure  white 
husbands  from  the  immigrants  to  the  Island,  whom  they 
have  deluded  into  the  belief  that  they  are  really  white.47  A 
few  other  pretty,  well-educated  and  wealthy  girls  of  this 
class  are  able  to  marry  white  because  of  their  wealth  and 
of  the  scarcity  of  white  girls  on  the  Island.48  The  number, 
however,  is  very  small,  and  sexual  association  between  the 
white  men  and  the  mulatto  girls  goes  on  without  the  for- 

45  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  East  Indian  coolies.  "They  are  proud, 
however,  and  will  not  intermarry  with  the  Africans.  .  .  .  The  black 
women  look  with  envy  at  the  straight  hair  of  Asia,  and  twist 
their  unhappy  wool  into  knots  and  ropes  in  the  vain  hope  of  being  mis 
taken  for  the  purer  race.  But  this  is  all.  The  African  and  the  Asiatic 
will  not  mix.  .  .  ."  Froude,  The  English  in  the  West  Indies,  pp.  73-74. 

40 ".  .  .  When  such  a  child  [a  mulatto  with  Negro  features]  appears 
in  the  Jamaican  upper  class — let  the  skin  be  ever  so  irreproachable  in 
color — that  individual  is  almost  doomed  to  step  down  when  he  or  she 
settles  under  a  roof  separate  from  the  parents.  Of  course  all  such  ob- 
stables  are  sometimes  counterbalanced  when  an  abundant  dowry  is  pro 
vided;  but  we  are  now  considering  only  general  rules."  Needham,  Jour 
nal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  4,  p.  192. 

47  Thorp,  World's  Work,  Vol.  8,  p.  4912. 

48 ".  .  .  Out  in  the  country  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  white  man 
married  to  a  woman  of  mixed  ancestry,  for  the  same  reason  that  white 
men  go  to  Oklahoma  and  marry  squaws  or  half-breed  girls,  .  .  ."  Need- 
ham,  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  4,  p.  195. 


70  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

malitj  of  a  legal  marriage.49  Marriages  between  mulatto 
or  "white  by  law"  males  and  white  women  almost  never  occur. 
The  few  on  record  are  those  of  light-colored  men  of  wealth 
who  have  gone  to  England  and  married  white  women  there, 
where  a  man  is  lionized  not  in  spite  of  his  color  but  because 
of  it,  or  where  the  fact  of  his  Negro  blood  is  not  known.50 
The  native  families  on  the  Island  never  marry  outside  their 
race ;  any  British  officer  or  official  would  ruin  his  career  by 
taking  a  colored  wife. 

Racial  feeling  is  everywhere  present  in  Jamaica  though 
the  insignificant  number  of  the  whites  and  the  political  recog 
nition  of  the  mulattoes  have,  in  general,  kept  it  from  assum 
ing  the  proportions  of  a  problem.51  The  blacks  are  socially, 
economically,  and  intellectually  inferior  and  contentedly  ac 
cept  the  inferior  status  assigned  them.52  Except  in  the 

49  Needham,  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  4,  p.  195.  Some  stu 
dents  at  least  recognize  this  as  a  desirable  phenomenon.  ".  .  .  There  is 
no  such  reason  against  the  begetting  of  children  by  white  men  in  coun 
tries  where,  if  they  are  to  breed  at  all,  it  must  be  with  women  of  col 
oured  or  mixed  race.  The  offspring  of  such  breeding,  whether  legitimate 
or  illegitimate,  is,  from  the  point  of  view  of  efficiency,  an  acquisition  to 
the  community,  and,  under  favourable  conditions,  an  advance  on  the 
pure-bred  African.  .  .  ."  Sir  Sidney  Olivier,  While  Capital  and  Col 
oured  Labour,  p.  38. 

60  Thorp,  World's  Work,  Vol.  8,  p.  4913.  See,  also,  W.  P.  Livingstone, 
"The  West-Indian  and  American  Negro:  A  Contrast,"  North  American 
Review,  Vol.  185,  p.  647. 

51 "...  I  am  convinced  that  this  class  [mulatto]  as  it  at  present  exists 
is  a  valuable  and  indispensable  part  of  any  West  Indian  community,  and 
that  a  colony  of  black,  coloured,  and  whites  has  far  more  organic  effi 
ciency  and  far  more  promise  in  it  than  a  colony  of  black  and  white  alone. 
.  .  .  The  graded  mixed  class  in  Jamaica  helps  to  make  an  organic 
whole  of  the  community  and  saves  it  from  this  distinct  cleavage." 
Olivier,  White  Capital  and  Coloured  Labour,  pp.  38-39.  See,  also, 
Livingstone,  North  American  Review,  Vol.  185,  p.  647. 

63  "The  whites  regard  the  negro  as  a  primitive  being,  incapable  as  yet 
of  standing  alone,  and  adopt  the  attitude  of  trainers  and  teachers:  the 
negroes  are  conscious  of  their  inferiority  and  willingly  fall  into  the  po- 


Mixed-Blood  Races  71 

capacity  of  employees  they  come  little  or  not  at  all  into 
contact  with  the  whites. 

In  South  Africa 

In  South  Africa  the  native  population  is  everywhere  far 
more  numerous  than  the  Europeans;  the  mixed  element  is 
generally  small.  It  is,  speaking  generally,  only  in  Cape 
Colony  that  a  very  considerable  half-caste  population  is 
found.53 

The  half-breed  race  is  of  very  complicated  ancestry.  In 
the  early  days,  the  Dutch  mixed  to  some  extent  with  the 
Hottentot  women  of  the  Cape,  giving  rise  to  the  so-called 
Bastaards.54  Later,  as  they  withdrew  into  the  interior,  they 
came  into  contact  with  the  Abantus,  who  at  that  time  were 
migrating  from  the  Northwest,  and  produced  a  second  type 
of  hybrid.55  In  1658  came  the  first  introduction  of  Negro 

sition  of  learners."  Livingstone,  North  American  Review,  Vol.  185,  p. 
647.  See,  also,  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  279.  So  uni 
versal  is  this  feeling  of  inferiority  on  the  part  of  the  blacks  and  mu- 
lattoes  that  it  is  claimed  that  white  women  can  go  about  unprotected  in 
perfect  safety. 

68  "In  British  South  Africa  the  colored  races  are  nearly  five  times  as 
numerous  as  the  whites."  Encyclopedia  Britannica:  South  Africa.  In 
1904  the  white  population  was  1,149,336  and  the  colored  7,111,329.  In 
1911  the  white  population  was  1,305,531  and  the  colored  6,890,693.  By 
colonies  H.  E.  S.  Fremantle,  The  New  Nation;  A  Survey  of  the  Condi 
tions  and  Prospects  of  South  Africa,  p.  179,  gives  the  following: 

Colonies  European  Colored  Total 

Cape  Colony  579,741  1,830,063  2,409,804 

Orange  R.  Colony  142,679  244,636  387,315 

Transvaal  297,277  972,674  1,269,951 

Natal  97,109  1,011,645  1,108,754 

Total  1,116,806  4,059,018  5,175,824 

See,  also,  Encyclopedia  Britannica  Year  Book,  1913,  pp.  702-12. 

w  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  444. 

65  The  Bushmen  appear  to  have  been  the  original  South  Africans.    The 


72  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

slaves  from  the  West  African  Coast ;  5G  shortly  afterwards 
began  the  importation  of  Asiatic  convicts  from  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago.  These  Mohammedan  Malays  mixed 
with  the  slave  women  from  the  Guinea  Coast  as  well  as  with 
the  native  Hottentot  women.  There  were  also  slaves  from 
Mozambique  and  natives  from  Madagascar,  the  injection 
of  wrhose  blood  further  complicated  the  ethnic  mix.57  Speak 
ing  of  the  present-day  conditions  in  Cape  Town  and  Colony 
as  a  result  of  an  incomplete  fusing  of  these  divergent  ethnic 
types,  Evans  says :  58 

.  .  .  Equally,  to  a  Natal  resident  visiting  Cape  Town 
the  mixed  colored  population  of  that  city  and  neigh 
borhood  is  a  feature  that  deeply  impresses  him.  He 
sees  a  mixture  of  races  to  which  he  is  quite  unaccus 
tomed.  Hottentot,  Bushman,  Mozambique  black,  Ma 
lay,  and  other  peoples  from  the  Far  East,  liberated 
slaves  from  West  and  East,  Abantu,  and  European  all 
fused,  in  varying  proportions,  to  make  the  colored 
Cape  people  of  to-day.  At  one  end  of  the  scale  he 
sees  men  and  women  almost  white,  well  educated,  well 
spoken,  well  dressed,  courteous  and  restrained  in  man 
ner,  and  at  the  other  end  of  this  color  scale  some  whom 
he  considers  inferior  to  the  ordinary  native  or  Indian 
coolie  of  his  home.  .  .  . 

These  mixed-blood  people  are  at  the  present  time  the  in 
tellectual  class  among  the  blacks.  The  blacks  are  on  their 
native  soil  and  never  have  had  the  advantage  of  a  period  of 

Hottentots  were  the  dominant  race  at  the  time  of  the  settlemnt.  The 
Kafir  (Bantu)  is  a  conqueror  in  South  Africa.  These  people  have  never 
been  enslaved  and  are  keenly  conscious  of  that  fact;  they  have  the  in 
stincts  of  a  race  with  a  proud  history.  Fremantle,  The  New  Nation, 
pp.  181-82. 

08 James  Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  p.  104. 

BT  Encyclopedia  Britannica:  South  Africa. 

DS  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa;  A  Study 
in  Sociology,  p.  296. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  73 

industrial  training  such  as  the  Negroes  in  the  New  World 
received  during  the  slave  regime.  They  are  practically  all 
heathen  and  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  a  culture  language. 
In  point  of  natural  ability,  the  Abantus  probably  are  con 
siderably  superior  to  West  African  Negroes  who  made  up 
the  bulk  of  the  importations  to  the  Americas.59  Moreover, 
the  blacks  are  such  an  overwhelming  majority  in  South 
Africa  that  they  have  little  opportunity  to  acquire,  or  to 
have  thrust  upon  them,  the  white  man's  culture;  their  nu 
merical  preponderance  operates  to  their  serious  disadvan 
tage.  The  mixed-bloods  form  separate  groups  apart  from 
the  native  and  from  the  white,  and  live  a  life  similar  to  their 
European  neighbors.  In  general  their  aims  and  ideals  are 
white,  though  they  grade  off  by  almost  imperceptible  de 
grees  into  the  native  groups  who  form  the  great  mass  of  the 
population.  Freemantle  considers  them  as  doubtfully  su 
perior  to  the  Abantus.  He  says :  60 

The  half-castes,  or  coloured  people,  as  they  are  gen 
erally  called,  have  more  civilization  though  not  more 
character.  They  are  showing  good  capacity  as  arti 
sans,  and  although  their  position  as  the  lower  class  in 
the  towns,  the  dubious  origin  of  their  race,  and  the 
absence  of  such  primitive  but  effective  discipline  as 
controls  the  Kafirs  in  their  tribal  state  do  not  conduce 
to  high  standards  of  life,  it  cannot  be  said  that  they 
have  proved  that  they  are  essentially  lacking  in  the 
moral  qualities  which  distinguish  strong  and  virile  peo 
ples.  .  .  . 

Mr.  Finot,  however,  has  asserted  that  the  Bastaards  are 
in  no  sense  inferior  to  the  pure  whites,61  but  this  seems  not 

69  Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  pp.  378-79. 

wThe~New  Nation,  p.  182. 

Finch,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  109,  says  that  they  have  "multiplied 
and  prospered  while  the  pure  Hottentots  have  rapidly  decreased." 

61  "The  Griquas  [Bastaards],  mixed  products  of  Hottentots  and  Dutch, 


74  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

to  be  the  opinion  of  those  with  most  knowledge  of  the  actual 
facts.  Evans,  for  example,  says :  C2 

...  It  is  utterly  contrary  to  fact  to  say  they 
[Griquas]  are  equal  to  Europeans;  either  physically, 
mentally,  morally,  as  a  whole,  neither  are  they  equal 
in  any  single  character  of  value.  .  .  .  The  Griquas  are 
a  degenerate,  dissolute,  demoralized  people,  weak  and 
unstable,  lazy  and  thriftless.  They  appear  to  be  con 
stitutionally  immoral,  far  more  so  than  either  the  Euro 
pean  or  Bantu  people  among  whom  they  live.  The 
branch  of  these  people  with  whom  I  am  best  acquainted 
live  in  Griqualand  East,  just  south  of  the  Natal  bor 
der.  They  came  to  this  land,  then  unoccupied  owing 
to  native  wars  and  thus  called  No  Man's  Land,  under 
Adam  Kok  their  chief,  some  half  century  ago.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  parts  of  South  Africa,  well  grassed 
and  well  watered,  with  fertile  arable  land,  a  glorious 
climate,  with  good  rainfall,  and  healthy  for  all  kinds 
of  live-stock.  This  goodly  land  was  parcelled  out  to 
the  Griqua  families  in  farms  of  from  2000  to  3000  acres. 
Never  had  a  people  a  better  start  in  life.  To-day  the 
land  has  passed  from  them  and  they  live  miserably  as 
squatters,  as  herds  for  Europeans,  or  without  definite 
employment,  and  the  farms  they  once  held  are  owned 
and  occupied  by  Europeans,  who  are  prosperous  and 
thriving,  and  constantly  advancing  in  the  amenities  of 
life.  The  Griquas  were  not  dispossessed  by  force;  ex 
cepting  for  one  short-lived  outbreak  the  country  has 
been  in  peace.  They  are  simply  constitutionally  unable 
to  hold ;  gin,  immorality,  laziness,  debt,  the  lack  of 
foresight  and  inability  to  forego  present  gratification 

or  the  Cafusos,  are  quite  equal  to  pure  whites,  just  as  the  cross  breeds 
of  Indian  and  Spanish  are  at  least  as  good  as  the  Spaniards  themselves." 
Finot,  Race  Prejudice.  Quoted  by  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White 
in  the  Southern  States,  pp.  25-26. 

63  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  pp.  26-27.  See,  also,  Fried- 
rich  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  2,  p.  295,  and  filisee  Reclus, 
Africa,  Vol.  4,  p.  149. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  75 

for  future  well-being,  are  the  reasons  for  their  race 
failure.  The  methods  of  the  incoming  European  were 
sometimes  not  justifiable,  but  the  hopeless  weakness  of 
the  Griqua  was  his  undoing. 

Between  the  races  in  South  Africa  there  is  a  complete 
separation  on  the  basis  of  color.  The  white  inhabitants 
recognize  no  difference  between  the  various  shades  of  Ne 
groes,  but  draw  an  impassable  color  line  with  the  whites  on 
one  side  and  all  grades  of  the  colored  population  on  the 
other.63  No  colored  man  ever  enters  the  house  of  a  white 
man  except  it  be  as  a  servant.  Intermarriage,  though  per 
mitted  in  the  English  colonies,  does  not  occur  in  South 
Africa,  and  illicit  relations  between  the  races  are  pretty 
effectually  tabooed  by  an  intolerant  public  opinion.64  "Each 
race  goes  its  own  way  and  lives  its  own  life."  65  Black  chil 
dren  are  not  admitted  to  the  schools  attended  by  white  chil 
dren,66  with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  mission  schools  to 
which  a  few  families  of  the  poorer  whites  send  their  children 
because  of  the  low  fees.67  The  superiority  of  the  white  man 
must  be  maintained  even  at  the  expense  of  his  sense  of  hu 
mor.68 

MBryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  p.  368. 

84  "I  suppose,  in  the  opinion  of  the  average  South  African,  the  admix 
ture  in  blood  of  the  races  is  the  worst  thing  that  can  happen,  at  least 
for  the  white  race,  and  possibly  for  both  ...  he  can  see  the  degrada 
tion  of  the  white  man,  the  ambiguous  position  of  the  children,  often 
the  resentment  of  the  native  in  cases  of  miscegenation;  .  .  ."  Evans, 
Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa^  p.  223.  See,  also,  Fremantle, 
The  New  Nation,  pp.  217-18. 

"Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  p.  375. 

"Evans,  Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa,  p.  299. 

"Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  p.  378. 

88 ' 'Sometimes  the  usual  relations  of  employer  and  employed  are  re 
versed,  and  a  white  man  enters  the  service  of  a  prosperous  Kaffir.  This 
makes  no  difference  as  respects  their  social  intercourse,  and  I  remember 


76  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  attitude  of  the  white  man  is  one  of  aversion  towards 
colored  people.  He  dislikes  and  despises  the  black.  The 
attitude  of  contempt  is  to  be  found  in  all  classes  though 
strongest  in  the  rougher  elements.  The  Dutch  are  more 
bitter  than  the  English,  and  more  disposed  to  treat  the  na 
tive  harshly.  There  is  no  community  of  ideas  and  no  sym 
pathy  between  the  races.69  "The  black  man  accepts  the 
superiority  of  the  white  man  as  a  part  of  the  order  of  na 
ture."  70  He  submits  patiently  to  the  stronger  race. 

But  there  is  no  serious  friction  between  the  white  and  the 
black  people  of  South  Africa.  The  native  is  too  far  re 
moved  from  the  white  man  to  appreciate  or  resent  the  white 
man's  attitude.71  The  mixed-bloods,  here  as  everywhere, 
chafe  against  the  social  ostracism  from  the  white  group  with 
which  it  is  their  ambition  to  be  identified,  and  resent  the  atti 
tude  of  the  white  group  which  identifies  them  with  the  native 
side  of  their  ancestry  which  they  are  anxious  to  conceal  and 
forget.  Speaking  of  the  half-castes  Fremantle  says :  72 

...  In  varying  degrees  he  possesses  white  blood.  He 
is  permanently  conscious  of  the  fact  that  the  infusion 
of  that  blood  differentiates  him  completely  from  the 
natives  who  surround  him.  He  feels  that  he  has  a  right 
to  a  definite  place  in  the  social  structure  of  South 
Africa,  and  he  is  embittered  by  finding  that  no  such 
place  is  accorded  to  him.  He  has  a  definite  place  in 
each  Colony  but,  as  has  already  been  stated,  he  is  sub 
jected  to  different  rules  in  the  different  Colonies. 
South  Africa,  as  such,  does  not  recognize  him.  And  he, 

to  have  been  told  of  a  case  in  which  the  white  workman  stipulated  that 
his  employer  should  address  him  as  'Boss.' "  Bryce,  Impressions  of 
South  Africa,  p.  367. 

mlbid.t  pp.  365-68. 

70  Ibid.,  p.  375. 

"  Ibid.,  p.  375. 

"  The  New  Nation,  pp.  319-20. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  77 

who  ought  to  be  a  permanent  support  to  the  influence 
of  white  rule,  is  tempted  to  turn  his  face  backwards 
to  a  more  sympathetic  understanding  with  that  native 
population  from  which  he  is,  in  so  large  a  part,  de 
rived. 

North  American  Indians 

The  contact  of  the  North  European  races  with  the  North 
American  Indians  more  often  resulted  in  the  extermination 
of  the  Indian  by  slaughter  or  disease,  than  in  an  amalgama 
tion  of  the  races.  During  the  period  of  settlement  and  colo 
nization,  there  generally  existed  a  state  of  potential  if  not 
of  actual  warfare  between  the  races.  The  Indian  was  dis 
possessed  and  driven  farther  and  farther  into  the  interior, 
rather  than  absorbed  into  the  new  life  of  the  country. 

However,  there  was  from  the  first  some  intermingling  of 
the  blood  of  the  races  which  has  continued  to  the  present 
day.  The  French  mingled  freely  with  the  Algonquian  tribes 
both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  inr.erior.  They  furnished 
fathers  for  the  great  group  of  present-day  French-Cana 
dians.  The  Catholic  missionaries,  especially  in  the  interior, 
favored  these  unions  and  they  took  place  to  such  an  extent 
that  to-day  few  French  families  in  the  Missouri-Illinois 
region  are  entirely  free  from  any  trace  of  Indian  blood. 
Of  the  fifteen  thousand  persons  of  French-Canadian  descent 
in  Michigan,  few  are  without  some  trace  of  Indian  inter 
mixture.73  In  Manitoba  at  the  time  of  its  admission  to  the 
Dominion,  there  were  some  ten  thousand  mixed-bloods,  the 
result  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  activities  in  the  Cana 
dian  Northwest.  A  considerable  per  cent  of  the  mixed- 
bloods  of  the  Northwest  are  the  descendants  of  English  and 
Scotch  fathers.  The  Iroquois  are  largely  mixed  with  both 

73  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Handbook  of  the  American  Indians. 
Part  I,  p.  913. 


78  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

French  and  English  blood,  an  appreciable  amount  of  which 
came  from  the  captives  in  the  wars  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  and  from  their  tribal  institution  of 
adoption.  In  the  Apache,  Comanche,  and  other  warlike 
tribes  of  the  Southwest,  is  also  some  admixture  of  captive 
white  blood.  In  such  cases  the  offspring  are,  in  a  larger 
percentage  of  cases  than  is  elsewhere  true,  the  children  of 
white  mothers  and  Indian  fathers.74 

In  the  early  days,  the  unions  of  the  whites  and  Indians 
were  usually  temporary  alliances  formed  and  broken  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  conquering  white  man.  Almost  exclusively 
they  were  unions  between  white  men  and  Indian  women.  Oc 
casionally,  and  much  more  frequently  during  the  past  half 
century,  there  have  been  alliances  of  a  different  sort.  Edu 
cated  individuals  of  some  Indian  blood  and  whites  occasion 
ally  have  intermarried;  some  of  these  unions  have  been 
between  white  women  and  men  of  Indian  blood.  In  how  far 
these  mixed  marriages  have  been  dictated  by  economic  mo 
tives,  it  is  of  course  not  possible  to  say.75 

At  the  present  time  the  Indian  population  of  the  United 
States  is  about  forty  per  cent  mixed-bloods,  and  consider 
ably  over  nine-tenths  of  the  mixed-bloods  are  Indian-white 
crosses.  The  actual  numbers  and  percentages  are  as  fol 
lows  : 76 

Indian  Population,  Continental  United  States,  1910 

Per  cent 

Racial  Ancestry  Number        of  Total 

Full  blood  150,053  56.5 

74  See  Handbook  of  the  American  Indian*,  Part  I,  pp.  913-14. 

78  Charles  Alexander  Eastman,  "The  North  American  Indian,"  Inter- 
Racial  Problems,  pp.  367-76. 

78 Indian  Population  in  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  United  States 
Census  1910,  Supplement  1915,  p.  31. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  79 

Per  Cent 

Racial  Ancestry  Number          of  Total 

Mixed  blood  93,423           35.2 

"White  and  Indian  a  88,030        33.1 

Negro   and  Indian  2,255          0.8 

White,  Negro  and  Indian  1,793          0.7 

Other  mixtures  80          0.1 

Unknown  1,265          0.5 

Not  reported  22,207              8.3 

Total  265,683         100.0 

a  Includes  Mexican  and  Indian. 

More  than  four-fifths  of  those  in  the  "not  reported"  group 
are  scattered  through  the  white  population  and  the  great 
majority  are  probably  individuals  of  mixed  blood.77  More 
over,  the  degree  of  the  intermixture  is  appreciably  greater 
than  appears  on  the  face  of  the  table.  Of  the  total  number 
of  mixed  white  and  Indian  blood  about  twenty  per  cent  are 
less  than  half  white,  nearly  twenty-eight  per  cent  are  one- 
half  Indian  and  one-half  white,  while  approximately  one-half 
of  all  the  mixed-bloods  are  more  than  one-half  white.  About 
four-fifths  of  the  total  number  of  mixed-bloods  are  at  least 
one-half  white.78 

Degree  of  Mixture  Number     Per  cent 

Less   than   one-half   white  18,169          20.6 

One-half  white,  one-half  Indian     24,353          27.7 
More  than  one-half  white  43,937          49.9 

In  regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  mixed- 
bloods,  the  report  gives  the  following  table :  79 

T776iU,  p.  31. 
™Ibid.,  p.  35. 
"Ibid.,  p.  32. 


80 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Per  cent 

State 

Full-blood 

Mixed-blood 

mixed 

Arizona 

27,087 

414 

1.4 

Oklahoma 

25,887 

44,288 

62.6 

New  Mexico 

20,085 

175 

0.9 

South  Dakota 

13,247 

5,408 

28.7 

California 

10,493 

4,217 

28.1 

Montana 

6,204 

3,895 

37.5 

Washington 

6,770 

3,019 

30.6 

Wisconsin 

5,249 

4,330 

45.1 

Nevada 

4,287 

508 

10.3 

Minnesota 

3,859 

4,886 

55.8 

Michigan 

3,528 

3,218 

47.6 

Oregon 

2,901 

1,668 

36.4 

Utah 

2,900 

105 

3.4 

Idaho 

2,864 

514 

15.0 

New  York 

2,850 

2,028 

38.9 

Nebraska 

2,294 

939 

28.4 

North  Dakota 

2,499 

3,561 

57.7 

Wyoming 

1,174 

284 

19.5 

North   Carolina 

1,394 

5,855 

80.3 

Mississippi 

1,077 

90 

7.7 

Colorado 

718 

50 

6.5 

Kansas 

516 

889 

62.9 

It  is  of  importance  to  note  that  the  proportion  of  mixed- 
bloods  is  high  in  the  regions  where  the  total  Indian  popula 
tion  is  small  as  compared  to  the  whites,  or  where  it  is  scat 
tered  through  the  white  population ;  and  that  the  proportion 
of  full-bloods  is  high  in  the  regions  with  a  large  total  Indian 
population,  or  where  the  Indian  tribes  live  in  relative  isola 
tion. 

The  Hopi  Indians  of  Arizona,  for  example,  are  99.9  per 
cent  pure,  while  the  Croatan  Indians  of  North  Carolina  are 
7.8  per  cent  pure.  The  former  is  an  isolated  group  of  some 
2,009 ;  they  are  but  little  in  contact  with  the  whites.  They 


Mixed-Blood  Races  81 

live  in  a  region  sparsely  populated  by  the  whites.  The 
Croatans,  a  small  group  of  composite  origin,  have  been  in 
contact  with  the  whites  and  Negroes  since  the  colonial  days, 
in  a  region  of  relatively  dense  white  population. 

The  St.  Regis,  a  tribe  of  mixed  Iroquoian  origin  living 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  are  the  second  most  mixed 
group.80  Out  of  a  total  of  1219,  there  are  1140  mixed- 
bloods.  The  Navajo,  a  large  nomadic  tribe  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  is  next  to  the  Hopi  in  the  purity  of  their  blood. 
Out  of  a  total  of  22,304,  there  are  but  99  mixed-bloods.  81 

Oklahoma  is  the  only  notable  exception  to  the  rule  that 
the  number  of  mixed-bloods  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
number  of  full-bloods  in  the  region.  With  a  large  number 
of  Indians,  it  also  has  a  small  proportion  of  full-bloods.  In 
explanation  of  this  anomaly  the  report  says :  82 

.  .  .  This  low  proportion  in  Oklahoma  is  no  doubt 
due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  possession  of  valuable 
lands  by  the  Indians  encourages  intermarriages  be 
tween  whites  and  Indians,  and  that  persons  with  very 
little  Indian  blood  are  anxious  to  establish  their 
claims  as  members  of  the  Indian  tribes,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  entitled  to  participate  in  the  distribution 
of  lands  and  moneys  belonging  to  the  Five  Civilized 
Tribes  in  Oklahoma. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  some,  at  least,  of  the  Okla 
homa  tribes  were  enormously  mixed  before  being  settled  in 
their  present  home;  also  that  the  number  of  white  people 
is  relatively  large  in  the  Oklahoma  region. 

80 Indian  Population  in  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  United  States 
Census  1910,  Supplement  1915,  p.  84. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  78. 
"Ibid.,  p.  32. 


82  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  Negroes  and  the  Indians  of  most  tribes  have  freely 
intermixed.     There  never  has  been  any  legal  barrier  to  their 
intermarriage  and  positively  there  exists  some  fundamenta 
grounds  of  sympathy  between  them.     In  the  early  days,  the} 
were  frequently  slaves  together  associating  on  terms  of  so 
cial  equality.      In  these  cases,  the  Indians   eventually  dis 
appeared  by  absorption  into  the  larger  body  of  blacks,  and 
were  counted  with  the  Negro  slaves.     Throughout  the  slave 
period,  there  is  occasional  mention  made  of  slaves  of  mixed 
Indian  and  Negro  blood.     Many  of  the  broken  coast  tribes 
have  been  completely  absorbed  into  the  Negro  race.83     All 
these  mixtures,  however,  now  appear  in  the  American  mu 
latto  rather  than  in  the  American  Indian  groups. 

In  certain  of  the  tribes,  notably  those  who  formerly  lived 
in  the  Gulf  States  and  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  there  is 
a  large  admixture  of  Negro  blood.  The  five  civilized 
tribes  84  were  large  slave  holders  and,  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War,  they  were  required  to  free  their  Negro  slaves  and 
admit  them  to  equal  Indian  citizenship.  There  were  over 
twenty  thousand  of  these  adopted  Negro  citizens  in  the  five 
tribes  in  addition  to  those  of  various  degrees  of  intermix 
ture. 

The  number  of  Indians  who  reported  Negro  blood  was 
doubtless  far  less  than  the  actual  number.85  The  degree  of 
Negro  blood  in  those  reporting  is  relatively  very  much  less 
than  the  amount  of  white  blood  in  the  Indian-white  crosses. 

88  Handbook  of  the  American  Indians,  Part  I,  p.  914. 

84  "The  Seminoles  at  this  time,  1834,  owned  perhaps  200  slaves,  their 
people  had  intermarried  with  the  maroons,  .  .  ."     Minnie  Moore-Will- 
son,  The  Seminoles  of  Florida,  p.  14. 

85  "The  number  of  Negro  and  Indian  mixed-bloods  reported,  2,255,  is 
probably   an    understatement,   owing  to   disinclination    to    admit    Negro 
blood."     Indian  Population  in  the   United  States   and  Alaska,   United 
States  Census  1910,  Supplement  1915,  p.  38. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  83 

Amount  of  Negro  Blood  in  the  Indian-Negro  Crosses  86 

Per  cent 

Degree  of  Mixture  Number    of  total 

Less  than  one-half  Negro  717          31.8 

One-half  Negro,  one-half  Indian          729          32.3 
More  than  one-half  Negro  780          34.6 

Unknown    proportions  29  1.3 

In  all  cases  the  fertility  of  the  mixed  unions  is  higher 
than  the  unions  of  the  full-blood  Indians.  The  greatest 
amount  of  sterility  is  found  in  the  marriages  between  the 
full-bloods ;  in  cases  of  miscegenation  it  is  considerably  less 
common.  The  per  cent  of  issueless  marriages  decreases  di 
rectly  with  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  Indian  blood  in  the 
married  couple.  In  cases  of  fertile  marriages  the  number  of 
children  is  also  less  in  the  Indian  marriages  than  in  those 
that  were  mixed.  The  marriages  between  mixed-blood  Ne 
groes  and  Indians  show  the  highest  degree  of  fertility.87 

Such  study  as  has  been  made  of  the  Indian-white  mixtures 
in  America,  shows  the  mixed-blood  race  to  be  physically 
superior  to  the  Indian  type.  Boaz 88  in  a  study  of  the 
French-Indian  mixtures,  found  the  offspring  to  exceed  both 
parents  in  height,  to  be  more  variable  than  the  Indian  par 
ents  and  also  to  be  more  fertile.  "We  observe  in  the  mixed- 
blood  race  that  the  fertility  and  the  laws  of  growth  are 
affected,  that  the  variability  of  the  race  is  increased,  and 
that  the  resultant  stature  of  the  mixed-blood  race  exceeds 
that  of  both  parents."  89  In  other  respects,  notably  in 
the  color  of  skin,  texture  of  the  hair  and  the  facial  features, 

*«Ibid.,  p.  38. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  157-58. 

88  Franz  Boaz,  "The  Half-Breed  Indian,"  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Vol.  45,  pp.  761-70.  See,  also,  Eugen  Fischer,  Die  Rehobother  Bastards 
und  das  Bastardierungsproblem  beim  Menschen. 

*glbid.,  p.  766. 


84  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  mixed-blood  race  is  much  nearer  to  the  Indian  than  to 
the  white  ancestry.  In  the  case  of  the  Negro  intermixture, 
the  offspring  incline  much  more  to  the  Indian  than  to  the 
Negro  type.90 

In  general,  the  mixture  of  other  blood  with  the  Indian 
has  not  given  rise  to  a  special  racial  problem.  The  in 
creasing  amount  of  white  blood  in  the  Indian  race  simply 
has  decreased  the  gap  between  the  races,  not  by  the  cre 
ation  of  an  intermediate  caste,  but  by  a  modification  of 
the  temperament  and  appearance  of  the  Indian  group.91 
The  mixed-blood  Indian,  dressed  in  the  clothes  of  civilized 
man,  loses  most  of  his  distinctive  Indian  characteristics. 
Moreover,  a  trace  of  Indian  blood  is  not  considered  a  taint 
which  it  is  necessary  to  conceal  and  of  which  the  individual 
need  feel  ashamed.  As  a  consequence,  the  man  of  mixed 
Indian-white  ancestry  who  desires  to  do  so,  may  escape 
from  the  Indian  group  and  identify  himself  with  and  become 
lost  in  the  culture  group. 

Most  frequently,  however,  the  half-breeds  have  elected  to 
remain  with  the  mother  race  and  to  become  the  leaders  of 
the  race.  The  Five  Civilized  Tribes  are  to-day  far  more 
Anglo-Saxon  than  they  are  Indian.  The  Wyandots  have 
not  a  single  full-blood.  For  over  a  century,  to  take  a  single 
example  to  illustrate  the  status  of  the  half-breed,  every 
leading  man  of  the  Cherokee  Nation  has  had  more  white  than 

90  Handbook  of  the  American  Indians,  Part  I,  p.  365. 

91  Possibly  also  by  causing  his  intellectual  advance.    At  any  rate  "The 
families  that  have  made  Cherokee  history  were  nearly  all  of  this  mixed 
descent.     The  Doughertys,  Galpins,  and  Adairs  were  from  Ireland;  the 
Rosses,   Vanns,   and    Mclntoshes,   like   the   McGillivrays    and   Graysons 
among  the  Creeks,  were  of  Scottish  origin;  the  Waffords  and  others  were 
Americans  from  Carolina  or  Georgia,  and  the  father  of  Sequoya  was  a 
[Pennsylvania?]     German.  .  .  ."      See    James    Mooney,    "Myths    of    the 
Cherokee,"  19th  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Part  1, 
p.  83. 


Mixed-Blood  Races  85 

Indian  blood.     John  Ross,  their  most  noted  man,  was  one- 
eighth  Indian  and  seven-eighths  white.92 

Where  a  race  problem  has  appeared,  it  has  been  due  in 
most  cases  to  an  antipathy  toward  the  Negro  and  Negro 
mixtures,  or  to  an  effort  on  the  part  of  these  mixtures  to 
escape  classification  with  the  Negro  race.  The  Croatan 
Indians  of  North  Carolina,  a  mixed-blood  race  of  Negro  and 
white  around  an  Indian  nucleus  whose  identity  has  been 
completely  lost,  were  for  years  classed  with  the  free  Ne 
groes.  They  persistently  refused  to  accept  the  classifica 
tion  or  to  attend  the  Negro  schools  or  churches,  claiming 
special  privileges  on  the  ground  that  they  were  descended 
from  native  tribes  and  early  settlers.  In  1885,  they  were 
given  separate  legal  existence  on  the  baseless  theory  that 
they  were  descended  from  Raleigh's  lost  colony  of  Croatan, 
and  separate  school  provision  was  made  for  them.93  In  some 
of  the  more  distinctly  Indian  tribes,  notably  the  Cherokee 
and  Osage,  there  is  a  bitter  rivalry  between  the  mixed- 
bloods  and  the  full-bloods,  and  they  have  formed  rival  fac 
tions.  The  Cherokees,  too,  draw  a  color  line  against  their 
Negro  citizens  and  refuse  to  intermarry  with  them. 

M Handbook  of  the  American  Indians,  Part  I,  p.  914. 

u  They  are  a  mixture  of  wasted  Indian  tribes,  forest  rovers,  runaway 
slaves  and  other  Negroes.  There  are  a  number  of  other  similar  groups, 
the  "Redbones"  of  South  Carolina,  the  "Melungeons"  of  West  Virginia 
and  East  Tennessee  and  the  "Moors"  of  Delaware,  but  like  the  "Cro 
atan  Indians"  they  are  rather  mulatto  than  Indian  mixtures.  See  Ibid., 
p.  365. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  MULATTO  :   THE  KEY  TO   THE  RACE  PROBLEM 

THE  foregoing  summary  review  of  the  origin  and  status 
of  the  chief  half-caste  races  has  necessarily  been  brief 
and  more  or  less  unsatisfactory.  It  does  not  include  a 
sketch  of  all  such  groups,  and  makes  no  pretense  of  being 
an  adequate  treatment  of  any. 

Little  more  can  be  done,  however,  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  concerning  these  peoples.  Of  the  score  or  more 
of  mixed-blood  races  scarcely  one  has  been  made  the  sub 
ject  of  objective  scientific  study.1  The  whole  work  on  this 
important  subject  remains  to  be  done.  Any  wide  observa 
tion  or  comparison,  or  any  thoroughgoing  analysis  of  a 
single  situation,  has  not  been  made. 

The  little  that  is  known  concerning  most  of  these  racial 
groups  comes  from  the  reports  of  travelers  and  officials  who 

*Dr.  Eugen  Fischer's  Die  Rehobother  Bastards  und  das  Bastardie- 
runysproblem  beim  Menschen  is  the  only  adequate,  objective,  scientific 
study  that  has  been  made  of  the  amalgamation  of  two  diverse  racial 
groups.  Fischer's  general  conclusion  is  to  the  effect  that  the  interbreed 
ing  of  the  first  generation  of  bastards  and  their  crossing  with  the  pure 
parent  races  have  given  rise  to  a  group  in  which  the  physical  charac 
ters  of  the  pure-blood  parent  races  reappear  in  endless  new  combinations 
and  that  no  new  race  with  approximately  uniform  characters  has  arisen. 
On  the  mental  side  the  bastards  show  an  intellectual  capacity  and  varia 
bility  superior  to  that  of  the  Negro  side  of  their  ancestry  but  are  as 
lacking  in  the  mental  energy  and  fixedness  of  the  European  as  is  the 
full-blood  primitive  group.  Fischer's  general  position  would  seem  to  be 
that  two  diverse  races  cannot  amalgamate  to  a  new  ethnic  unity.  See 
note  6,  p.  13  above. 

86 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem        87 

are  dealing  primarily  with  other  matters.  These  observers 
frequently  disagree  concerning  even  the  most  obvious  objec 
tive  facts.  *  Their  opportunity  to  observe  generally  is  limited  ; 
they  see  one  phase  of  a  situation,  seldom  the  whole.  More 
over,  individual  interest  determines  what  the  non-scientific 
observer  of  a  social  situation  will  see.  His  preconceptions 
lead  him  to  see  the  things  for  which  he  is  looking.  His  prej 
udice  may  prevent  him  from  giving  an  unbiased  report  of 
what  he  observes  if,  indeed,  it  does  not  actually  prevent  him 
from  seeing  certain  facts  of  first-rate  importance.  Sweep 
ing  generalizations  are  made  on  the  basis  of  the  most  par 
tial  and  inadequate  observation.  Seldom  is  any  account 
taken  of  the  part  played  by  different  factors  at  work  in 
the  situation.  The  amental  influences  behind  the  observed 
conditions  are  never  gotten  at  and  there  is  seldom  a  con 
sciousness  on  the  part  of  the  writers  that  such  influences 
exist. 

On  the  basis  of  such  data  as  are  available,  the  object  has 
been  to  give  in  brief  space  as  accurate  a  statement  as  pos 
sible  concerning  the  main  facts  of  the  miscegenation  of  the 
advanced  and  backward  races  for  the  light  that  such  a  com 
parison  would  throw  on  the  mulatto  type  and  problem  ex 
isting  in  the  United  States.  Incomplete  as  are  the  data,  and 
tentative  as  the  conclusions  must  consequently  be,  enough 
has  been  said  to  reveal  the  fact  that  the  mulatto  is  the  key 
to  the  racial  situation.  Any  scientific  study  of  a  race  prob 
lem  that  fails  to  take  account  of  the  man  of  mixed  ancestry 
and  the  special  and  important  part  he  plays,  falls  short  of 
a  complete  analysis  of  the  situation.  Any  program  of  ra 
cial  adjustment  that  does  not  recognize  and  provide  for  this 
special  factor  fails  at  the  most  vital  point.  Broadly  speak 
ing,  the  review  seems  to  bear  out  the  conclusion  that  in  its 
acute  and  troublesome  form,  the  "race  problem"  is  the  prob- 


88  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

lem  of  the  mulatto. 

It  remains  for  this  section  to  summarize  in  general  terms 
certain  facts  in  regard  to  the  origin,  growth,  and  status  of 
the  mixed-blood  races;  to  point  out  certain  similarities  in 
the  psychological  type  developed,  and  to  show  the  sociologi 
cal  problem  that  the  type  creates. 

In  every  case  the  half-caste  races  have  arisen  as  the 
result  of  illicit  relations  between  the  men  of  the  superior 
and  the  women  of  the  inferior  race.2  In  India  it  was  the 
Portuguese  and  later  the  English  men  who  mixed  with  the 
native  women ;  in  Greenland  it  was  the  Danish  men  and  the 
native  women ;  on  the  Labrador  coast  it  was  the  English 
fishermen  and  the  native  women ;  in  Brazil  it  was  the  Portu 
guese  immigrant  men  with  the  native  and  later  with  the 
Negro  women ;  in  other  parts  of  South  America  and  the 
Spanish  West  Indies,  it  was  the  Spanish  males  with  the 
native  and  later  with  the  Negro  females;  in  Haiti  it  was 
the  French  settlers  with  the  Negro  women,  and  so  it  has 
been  in  all  other  cases.  There  is  no  mixed-blood  race  which 
is  the  result  of  intermarriage  between  culturally  unequal 
races  and  none  where  the  mothers  of  the  half-castes  are  not 
of  the  culturally  inferior  race. 

While  all  the  advanced  races  have,  under  certain  condi 
tions,  mixed  with  the  vomen  of  the  lower  races  they  have 
not  done  so  with  anything  like  equal  readiness.  Of  the 
white  races,  the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese  have  mixed 
most  easily  and  in  largest  numbers.  They  have  mixed, 
moreover,  with  almost  equal  readiness  with  the  Malay,  the 
American  Indian,  and  the  African  Negress;  and  with  less 
repugnance  than  any  other  people  with  whom  these  lower 
races  have  come  in  contact.  "They  had  never  acquired,  or 

2  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  "Racial  Problems  and  the  Congress  of  Races," 
Contemporary  Review,  Vol.  100,  p.  159. 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem        89 

had  lost  as  the  result  of  experience,  any  aversion  to  race 
mixture."  3  The  French  mixed  readily  with  the  American 
Indians  but  in  contact  with  the  Negroes  in  Haiti  they 
mixed  relatively  little.  The  English  have  crossed  with  all 
the  lower  races,  but  much  more  slowly  than  have  the  Latin 
peoples.  Moreover,  the  English  mix  less  readily  with  the 
Negroes  than  with  the  Indians,  and  more  slowly  with  these 
than  with  certain  of  the  brown  races.4  Bryce  summarizes 
the  situation  in  these  words :  5 

.  .  .  Roughly  speaking  ...  we  may  say  that  while 
all  the  races  of  the  same,  or  a  similar,  colour  inter 
marry  freely,  those  of  one  colour  intermarry  very 
little  with  those  of  another.  This  is  most  marked  as 
between  the  white  and  the  black  races.  The  various 
white  races  are,  however,  by  no  means  equally  averse 
to  such  unions.  Among  the  Arabs  and  Turks  the 
sense  of  repulsion  from  negroes  is  weakest,  .  .  .  The 
South  European  races,  though  disinclined  to  such  un- 

8  A.  G.  Keller,  Colonization,  pp.  104,  216,  219.  See,  also,  H.  C.  Morris, 
The  History  of  Colonization,  Vol.  1,  p.  249. 

4B.  L.  Putnam  Weale  [Weale  is  the  pseudonym  of  Mr.  B.  L.  Simp 
son],  "The  Conflict  of  Color,"  World's  Work,  Vol.  19,  p.  12,328,  points  out 
the  same  preference  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese.  They  mate  readily 
with  ''many  varieties  of  brown  maidens"  but  avoid  the  black.  See,  also, 
U.  G.  Weatherly,  "A  World  Wide  Color  Line,"  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Vol.  79,  p.  480. 

"James  Bryce,  Relations  of  Advanced  and  Backward  Races,  pp.  18- 
19.  See,  also,  Bryce,  "Migrations  of  the  Races  of  Men,"  Contemporary 
Review,  Vol.  62,  p.  130.  ".  .  .  Whether  in  each  case  of  dispersion 
the  migrating  population  becomes  fused  with  that  which  it  finds,  depends 
chiefly  on  the  difference  between  the  level  of  civilization  of  the  two 
races."  Luis  Cabrera,  "The  Mexican  Revolution — Its  Causes,  Purposes 
and  Results,"  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  Supplement,  Jan.  1917,  p.  5,  states  the  order  of  ease  with  which 
civilized  races  fuse  with  the  Mexican  mixed-blood  race  as  follows:  1. 
Spanish  and  Italian,  2.  German,  3.  French,  and  4.  American  and  Eng 
lish.  The  first  two  races  "nearly  always"  blend;  the  last  two  "hardly 


90  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ions,  do  not  wholly  eschew  them.  ...  In  modern  times 
the  Spanish  settlers  in  the  Antilles  and  South  America, 
and  the  Portuguese  in  Brazil,  as  well  as  on  the  East 
and  West  coasts  of  Africa,  have  formed  many  unions 
with  negro  women,  as  the  Spaniards  have  done  with 
the  Malayan  Tagals  in  the  Philippines,  and  the  Por 
tuguese  with  the  Hindus  in  Malabar.  There  is  to-day 
a  negro  strain  in  many  of  the  whites  of  Cuba,  and  a 
still  stronger  one  in  the  whites  of  Brazil.  The  aver 
sion  to  color  reaches  its  maximum  among  the  Teutons. 
The  English  in  North  America  and  the  West  Indies 
did,  indeed,  during  the  days  of  slavery,  become  the 
parents  of  a  tolerably  large  mixed  population,  as  did 
the  Dutch  in  South  Africa.  But  they  scarcely  ever 
intermarried  with  the  free  coloured  people:  ...  So 
the  English  in  India  have  felt  a  like  aversion  to  mar 
riages  with  native  women,  and  even  such  illicit  con 
nections  as  were  not  rare  a  century  ago  are  now  sel 
dom  found. 

Where  a  white  race  comes  into  contact  with  the  so- 
called  "red"  or  "yellow"  race  .  .  .  the  sense  of  re 
pulsion  is  much  less  pronounced.  The  English  settlers 
intermarry,  though  less  frequently  than  the  French 
did,  with  the  aborigines  of  America.  .  .  .  The  Span 
iards  have  been  still  less  fastidious.  All  over  Central 
and  South  America  they  have  become  commingled  with 
the  aborigines,  especially,  as  was  natural,  with  the 
more  advanced  tribes.  .  .  . 

Another  element  that  conditions  the  amount  of  miscegena 
tion  that  takes  place  between  the  members  of  two  divergent 
races  is  the  class  of  the  superior  race  that  comes  into  con 
tact  with  the  native  race.  In  most  of  the  early  contacts  of 
the  white  race  with  the  darker  races,  the  white  race  has  been 
represented  by  its  adventurer  and  outcast  classes.6  In  Cen- 

6  "Most  race  crossing  has  occurred  on  the  outskirts  of  civilization,  .  .  ." 
Earl  Finch,  "The  Effects  of  Racial  Miscegenation,"  Inter-Racial  Prob- 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem         91 

tral  and  South  America,  the  adventurers  and  the  clergy 
were  reinforced  by  convicts  sentenced  to  death  or  mutila 
tion  who  had  their  sentences  commuted  on  condition  that 
they  emigrate  to  the  colonies.  Greenland  was  practically 
a  Danish  penal  colony  with  a  forced  immigration  of  orphan 
boys  to  recruit  the  teaching  force  and  the  inferior  clergy. 
South  Africa  was  made  the  dumping  ground  for  Asiatic 
convicts.  Portugal  unloaded  on  her  Brazilian  colony  not 
only  her  convicts  but  her  prostitutes  as  well.  Aside  from 
the  criminal  and  the  vicious,  however,  the  military  and  the 
adventurer  classes  are  hardly  more  typical  of  the  moral 
sense  of  a  community,  but  they  usually  have  been  the  first 
representatives  of  the  superior  race  with  whom  the  nature 
peoples  have  come  in  contact. 

Of  more  importance,  perhaps,  than  either  race  or  class 
considerations  is  the  matter  of  the  presence  or  the  absence 
of  women  of  the  higher  race.  In  the  absence  of  their  own 
women,  men  of  all  divisions  of  the  white  race  have  inter 
mixed,  though  not  with  equal  readiness,  with  the  women  of 
the  lower  races.  Where  women  have  been  present  some  in 
termixture  has  still  gone  on,  but  never  in  the  wholesale  way 
that  characterizes  the  trading,  as  distinguished  from  the 
settlement,  colony.  It  is  to  this  fact — the  presence  or  ab 
sence  of  women  of  the  culture  race — that  Keller  seems  in 
clined  to  attribute  the  differences  in  the  amount  of  inter 
mixture  with  the  native  races  in  the  North  American  and 
the  South  American  colonies.  White  women  were  present 
in  the  former;  and  few  in  number,  or  entirely  absent,  in  the 
latter.7 

lems,  p.  111.  See,  also,  Felix  von  Luschan,  "Anthropological  View  of 
Race,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  23. 

''Colonization,  p.  14.  See,  also,  E.  A.  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp. 
109  if. 


92  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

Comparison  is  likewise  challenged  in  respect  to  mar 
riage  and  the  family.  The  fundamental  factors  which 
rendered  the  conditions  of  the  tropical  colonies  so  dif 
ferent  from  those,  say,  of  the  New  England  settle 
ments,  were  the  great  preponderance  of  males,  and  the 
feeble  economic  efficiency  of  such  females  as  were  pres 
ent.  The  former  factor  led  to  formal  celibacy,  inter 
mixture  of  races,  and  aberrations  all  but  unknown  in 
societies  of  the  other  type, — all  this  amounting  to 
a  negation  of  matrimony  in  the  sense  characteristic  of 
the  temperate  colony.  The  other  factor,  economic  in 
efficiency,  minimized  the  importance  of  woman's  status ; 
the  materfamilias  had  no  such  independent  and  influ 
ential  position  in  the  tropics  as  in  the  cooler  regions. 
And  where  woman  was  absent  or  of  little  significance, 
there  could  be  little  of  the  family  life  and  solidarity 
characteristic  of  many  settlement  colonies.  .  .  . 

With  the  increase  of  women  and  the  consequent  equalizing 
of  the  sexes  of  the  white  race,  the  miscegenation  with  the 
native  women  everywhere  has  tended  to  decrease.  But  the 
coming  of  women,  usually  as  the  members  of  immigrating 
families,  has  meant,  also,  a  change  in  the  class  of  men  who 
were  immigrating  to  the  colony.  It  has  indicated  that  the 
settler  and  the  home  seeker  was  displacing  the  adventurer 
so  that  a  difference  in  the  sexual  relations  of  the  races  is 
to  be  expected  quite  apart  from  whatever  influence  the  pres 
ence  of  women  might  have. 

It  is  sometimes  held  that  the  institution  of  slavery  was 
responsible  for  the  origin  of  the  mixed-blood  races  through 
the  compulsory  concubinage  of  the  slave  women  by  the  mas 
ter  class.  But  mixed-blood  races  have  arisen  where  the  in 
stitution  of  slavery  has  not  prevailed.  The  North  American 
Indians  were  never  successfully  enslaved,  yet  they  have  in 
termixed  with  every  other  race  with  whom  they  have  come 
in  contact.  The  same  fact  is  to  be  noted  in  other  regions. 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Probkm        93 

Slavery  did  not  exist  in  Greenland,  nor  in  the  Philippines, 
nor  in  India  or  elsewhere  in  Asia.  The  simple  fact  of  the 
case  seems  to  be  that  the  women  of  the  lower  races  every 
where  seek  sex  relations  with  the  men  of  the  superior  race 
or  caste.  Ratzel 8  comments  upon  "the  ease  with  which 
Malay  women  form  transitory  alliances  with  foreigners," 
and  adds  that  "nearly  all  the  so-called  Chinese  women  in 
Banca  are  half-breeds  from  Malayan  mothers."  Keller9 
says  of  the  Eskimo  women  that  "illicit  relations  with  white 
men  are  rather  a  glory  than  a  disgrace."  Of  the  Indian 
women,  Lee  10  says  "she  is  the  seducer  and  it  is  the  proudest 
moment  of  her  life  when  she  has  allied  herself  with  a  man 
of  a  superior  race,"  while  Crooke11  points  out  the  fact 
that  a  failure  on  the  part  of  girls  of  certain  castes  to  at 
tract  the  attention  and  have  sex  relations  with  men  of 
a  higher  class  ruins  their  chances  to  secure  husbands  in 
their  own  group,  and  that  for  a  girl  to  claim  such  an  honor 
falsely  is  legal  grounds  for  divorce  on  the  part  of  the  out 
raged  husband.12  It  seems  to  be  the  usual  situation  every 
where  that  the  women  of  the  lower  races  or  the  lower  castes 
desire,  seek,  feel  honored  by  the  attention  of  the  higher  class 
men,  and. are  enormously  proud  of  their  light-skinned,  half- 
caste  children.  The  effect  of  slavery,  so  far  as  any  effect 
can  be  shown,  seems  to  be  to  lessen  the  amount  of  inter 
mixture  by  separating  and  restraining  the  vicious  elements, 
and  so  preventing  an  indiscriminate  sexual  relation. 

Once   started,   the   half-caste   races   everywhere   increase 

"Friedrich  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  1,  p.  438. 

9  Colonization,  p.  515. 

"Mary  Helen  Lee,  The  Eurasian:  A  Social  Problem,  p.  5. 

11 W.  Crooke,  "The  Stability  of  Caste  and  Tribal  Groups  in  India," 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  Vol.  44,  pp.  270-81. 

13  Edward  Westermarck,  The  History  of  Human  Marriage,  pp.  65-67, 
76-77,  81. 


94  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

rapidly  in  numbers  and  always  at  the  expense  of  the  back 
ward  race.  Illicit  relations  between  the  half-breed  women 
and  the  men  of  the  superior  race  are  the  normal  situation 
after  the  mixed-blood  race  has  become  sufficiently  large  to 
allow  the  forces  of  sexual  selection  to  operate.  The  half- 
breed  men  in  their  turn  prey  upon  the  women  of  the  pure- 
blood  native  race.  Both  result  in  additions  to  the  mulatto 
group.  Moreover,  the  marriage  of  the  mixed-blood  indi 
viduals  is  in  nearly  every  case  with  their  own  or  a  lighter 
color,  hence  the  natural,  legitimate  increase  is  normal  or 
nearly  so.13 

In  some  cases,  especially  after  the  earlier  crosses  have 
produced  a  somewhat  choicer  type  of  female,  there  has  come 
to  be  some  intermarriage.  A  small  number  of  Danes  form 
temporary  marriage  unions  with  the  mixed-blood  Eskimo 
women  in  Greenland,  though  the  women  and  children  are  de 
serted  when  the  man  retires  from  official  life.  The  unions 
of  the  Chinese  with  the  native  women  in  the  Philippines  is 
a  form  of  marriage  very  similar  to  that  practiced  by  tha 
Danes  and  Eskimo  women  of  Greenland.  There  is  some 
intermarriage  between  the  middle-class  or  low-class  whites 
and  the  mixed-breed  races  of  Latin  America.  In  Brazil  the 
wealthy  and  near-white  mulattoes  and  metis  sometimes 
marry  immigrant  and  other  white  women.  Occasionally 
among  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  United  States,  are  to  be 

13  It  would  be  quite  normal  except  for  the  illegitimate  children  that 
the  women  of  the  mixed-blood  race  bear  to  white  men.  These,  how 
ever,  cannot  all  be  counted  as  substitutes  for  children  of  a  mixed-blood 
father.  They  are  usually  born  before  the  girl  forms  a  regular  sexual 
union  with  one  of  her  own  class  and  are  in  general  to  be  looked  upon  as 
extra-matrimonial  additions  to  the  class.  Such  relations  seem  generally 
not  to  be  a  bar  to  the  girl  forming  a  regular  matrimonial  alliance  with 
one  of  her  own  class  and  in  some  cases  at  least  gives  her  a  decided 
prestige. 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to   the  Race  Problem         95 

found  white  men  and  women  married  to  wealthy  Indians  and 
half-breeds. 

In  most  of  these  situations  if  not  in  all,  intermarriage  is 
the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  Where  it  takes  place,  the 
compelling  motive  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  economic  status 
of  the  colored  man  or  woman,  in  the  scarcity  of  women  of 
the  advanced  race,  or  in  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  all 
other  situations,  mixed  marriages  are  very  rare  though  iso 
lated  cases  occur  in  all  countries.  All  in  all,  the  number 
of  mixed  marriages  that  occur  in  any  country  with  an  ad 
vanced  race  and  a  backward  race  in  the  population,  is  very 
trivial  as  compared  to  the  amount  of  amalgamation  that 
takes  place  between  the  races  outside  the  marriage  bond. 

In  general,  the  half-breed  children  are  disowned  by  their 
fathers  though  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Where  the 
unions  take  the  form  of  a  fairly  permanent  marriage,  as 
with  some  of  the  Danish-Eskimo  and  many  of  the  Chinese- 
Malay  unions,  the  offspring  are  acknowledged  and  cared 
for.  The  Chinaman  is  even  said  to  be  inordinately  proud 
of  his  half-breed  progeny.  In  the  colonial  days,  the  Span 
ish  and  the  Portuguese  in  South  America  in  some  cases 
acknowledged  their  mixed-blood  offspring  by  the  Negro  and 
native  women,  and  provided  for  their  education  and  train 
ing.  In  general,  however,  the  child  followed  the  status  of 
the  mother.14  The  French  in  Canada  in  the  colonial  days 
often  showed  much  fondness  for  their  offspring  by  the  In 
dian  women.  In  Haiti  their  unions  with  the  Negro  women 
were  of  a  casual  sort;  the  fathers  showed  little  concern  for 
their  mulatto  progeny.  The  British  never  have  acknowl- 

14  "The  amalgamation  of  the  negroes  by  the  Mohammedans  is  facili 
tated  particularly  by  the  institution  of  polygamy,  the  conquerors  taking 
native  wives,  and  raising  their  children  as  members  of  their  own  fam 
ily."  Franz  Boaz,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  p.  15. 


96  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

edged  their  offspring  by  a  lower  race.  In  India  and  the 
sea-port  cities  of  Asia,  the  offspring  in  many  cases  are  the 
result  of  a  casual  meeting;  the  father  may  not  know  his 
offspring  or  even  know  of  their  existence.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  individual  fathers,  more  frequently  in  some 
places  than  in  others,  have  acknowledged  and  cared  for 
their  half-caste  children  but  that  this  has  at  no  time  or 
place  been  the  rule. 

The  status  of  the  mixed-blood  race  tends  to  differ  from 
that  of  either  of  the  parent  races.  It  is  not  everywhere  the 
same,  however,  and  the  status  of  a  single  group  is  not  the 
same  at  different  times.  The  operation  of  the  two  prime 
factors — the  racial  differences  and  the  cultural  differences 
of  the  pure-blood  groups — is  modified  by  historical  factors 
and  by  the  prevailing  social  situation. 

There  are  almost  infinite  gradations  of  both  color  and 
culture.  There  are,  however,  four  different  combinations 
in  which  these  factors  may  appear.  The  two  races  in  con 
tact  in  a  given  geographical  situation  may  be  practically 
alike  both  as  to  color  and  as  to  culture.  There  may  be  an 
essential  equality  of  culture,  but  a  wide  diversity  in  color 
or  other  physical  characteristics.  They  may  be  widely 
different  as  to  cultural  development,  yet  essentially  alike  as 
to  color  and  other  ethnic  characters.  Finally  they  may  di 
verge  both  in  cultural  and  in  racial  characteristics.  The 
inter-racial  situation  differs  in  each  case  and  the  status  of 
the  half-caste  race  likewise  differs.  The  first  situation  ordi 
narily  does  not  give  rise  to  a  lasting  racial  problem.  The 
third  case  may  or  may  not  do  so.  In  the  second,  a  char 
acteristic  form  of  the  race  problem  appears.  It  is  in  the 
fourth,  however,  that  the  problem  emerges  in,  its  most 
characteristic  present  day  form  and  presents  the  most 
troublesome  social  situation.  Each  of  the  phases  will  be 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem        97 

noted  in  turn. 

Of  the  innumerable  bastard  races  produced  by  the  com 
mingling  of  primitive  groups,  none  seems  to  have  acquired 
a  distinct  status  in  the  community  life.  Where  there  ex 
ist  no  fundamental  differences  in  culture  and  no  wide  ethnic 
divergence,  there  soon  comes  to  be  an  intermingling  of  the 
cultures  of  the  two  groups  in  contact,  or  a  cultural  assim 
ilation  of  the  one  by  the  other.  As  friendly  intercourse 
increases,  the  original  separation  on  race  lines  gives  way 
little  by  little  to  a  class  division.  The  individuals  of  mixed 
ancestry  who  practically  always  appear  are  a  help  in  this 
direction.  They  serve  as  a  tie  between  the  originally  hostile 
groups  and  their  lack  of  a  distinctive  appearance  militates 
against  their  being  made  into  a  special  class  in  the  com 
munity.  In  the  process  of  racial  amalgamation,  the  group 
of  lesser  numerical  strength  presently  loses  itself  within  the 
larger — becomes  an  integral  part  of  the  community — with 
out  greatly  altering  the  ethnic  type  of  the  larger  group. 
Where  the  numerical  strength  of  the  two  groups  is  more 
nearly  equal,  the  intermixture  of  the  two  races  leads  to  the 
formation  of  a  homogeneous  hybrid  race  in  which  the  dis 
tinctive  features  of  the  parent  races  blend  and  disappear. 
Between  closely  related  ethnic  groups,  as  different  branches 
of  the  same  race,  intermarriage  is  governed  by  much  the 
same  rules  as  govern  the  marriage  of  individuals  within 
the  same  branch.  It  is  a  question  of  association  and  of 
sufficient  time  to  allow  of  mutual  understanding  and  appre 
ciation. 

Oppenheimer,15  discussing  the  formation  of  the  primitive 
state  through  the  subjugation  of  one  group  by  another 
and  their  gradual  reduction  to  an  ethnic  and  cultural  unity, 

"Franz    Oppenheimer,    The    State;    Its    History    and    Development 
Viewed  Sociologically,  pp.  80-81, 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


says: 


.  .  .  The  two  groups,  separated  to  begin  with,  and 
then  united  on  one  territory,  are  at  first  merely  laid 
along  side  one  another  like  a  mechanical  mixture,  as 
the  term  is  used  in  chemistry,  until  gradually  they 
become  more  and  more  of  a  "chemical  combination." 
They  intermingle,  unite,  amalgamate  to  unity,  in  cus 
toms  and  habits,  in  speech  and  worship.  Soon  the 
bonds  of  relationship  unite  the  upper  and  the  lower 
strata.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  master  class  picks  the 
handsomest  virgins  from  the  subject  races  for  its  con 
cubines.  A  race  of  bastards  thus  develops,  sometimes 
taken  into  the  ruling  class,  sometimes  rejected,  and 
then  because  of  the  blood  of  the  masters  in  their  veins, 
becoming  the  born  leaders  of  the  subject  race.  In  form 
and  content  the  primitive  state  is  completed. 

Where  each  of  the  two  races  in  contact  possesses  a  cul 
ture  and  a  civilization,  yet  differ  markedly  in  physical  ap 
pearance,  the  mixed-blood  race  tends  to  become  an  outcast 
group.  A  distinctive  physical  appearance  makes  it  impos 
sible  for  the  hybrids  to  pass  as  individuals  of  either  race. 
They  cannot  rise,  as  a  group,  superior  to  either  of  the  par 
ent  races.  Both  races  despise  and  reject  them. 

This  appears  to  be  the  status  of  the  Eurasian  of  India 
and  of  the  various  European-Asiatic  half-castes.  The  Ori 
entals,  as  the  East  Indians,  have  a  civilization  in  which  they 
believe,  and  a  pride  of  race  that  is  often  more  intolerant 
than  that  of  the  Caucasian.  They  do  not  consciously  ad 
mit  the  superiority  of  European  culture.  The  civilizations 
are  not  serially  arranged;  one  is  not  so  much  higher  than 
the  other  as  that  they  are  different  civilizations.  In  this 
situation  there  is  no  place  for  the  half-castes.  They  are 
neither  Asiatic  nor  European.  They  are  accepted  by 
neither  race  and  they  can  rise  superior  to  neither, 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem        99 

Where  the  two  peoples,  essentially  alike  as  to  ethnic  char 
acters  but  different  as  to  cultural  development  are  brought 
into  close  contact  and  association,  a  permanent  race  prob 
lem  may  or  may  not  arise.  Even  though  color  and  other 
physical  features  are  not  sufficiently  divergent  to  create, 
or  serve  as  a  basis  for,  an  antipathy ;  the  peoples  may  be 
so  tempermentally  constituted  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
them  to  arrive  at  any  mutually  satisfactory  working  rela 
tions.  Their  interests  may  so  clash  as  to  keep  them  even 
from  approaching  anything  like  kindly  feeling  and  unity 
of  purpose.  Their  political  ideas  may  diverge.  Their  re 
ligious  beliefs  may  differ.  Their  distinctive  manners,  cus 
toms,  and  habits  of  life  may  be  at  variance.  The  differ 
ences  may  be  so  marked  that  toleration  may  be  impossible 
and  accommodation  come  about  only  by  the  elimination  of 
the  one  or  the  other  or  a  more  or  less  complete  separation 
along  racial  lines.  The  established  customs  and  the  habits 
of  thought  and  action,  differences  in  speech,  dress,  religion, 
and  the  like  that  set  them  off  as  a  distinct  people,  may  be 
nursed  and  deified  and  every  effort  made  to  prevent  assimi 
lation  of  the  one  by  the  other.  This,  however,  is  the  prob 
lem  of  the  immigrant ;  it  is  the  problem  of  nationalities.  It, 
for  the  most  part,  falls  outside  the  present  discussion.  The 
half-races  that  appear,  differ  too  slightly  from  either  of 
the  parent  races  for  them  to  be  easily  distinguishable.  In 
dividuals  may  therefore  pass  in  either  group  and  be  judged 
according  to  their  personal  ability  and  worth.  They  do 
not  represent  a  type.  Individual  initiative  and  opportunity 
are  the  things  required  to  raise  the  individual  to  a  higher 
class. 

When  color  differences  coincide  with  differences  in  culture 
levels,  then  color  becomes  symbolic  and  each  individual  is 
automatically  classified  by  the  racial  uniform  he  wears. 


100  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

<}  If  the  proportions  of  the  two  groups  be  such  that  the  racial 
5  purity    and   cultural    traits    of   one   group    are   potentially 
?  threatened,    the    initial    conflict    may    settle    down    into    a 
J  chronic    state    of    racial    contempt    or    hatred.     The    more 
:  widely  the  races  differ  in  appearance,  culture,  language,  re- 
:ligion,  anything  that  serves  to  distinguish  them,  the  more 
I  bitter  will  be  the  feeling  existing  between  them.     The  more 
'  unalterable  the  differences,  the  more  permanent  will  be  their 
1  mutually  hostile  attitude.     The  greater  the  danger  the  back 
ward  group  is  felt  to  be  to  civilized  standards,  the  greater 
vill  be  the  intolerance  of  the  culture  group.16 

\\heie  the  two  groups  in  a  racial  situation  thus  have 
differed  widely  both  in  culture  and  in  color,  they  everywhere 
have  tended  toward  an  adjustment  on  the  basis  of  superi 
ority  and  subordination.  The  Portuguese  and  the  Spanish 
enslaved  or  exterminated  the  natives  of  the  West  Indies  and 
on  the  mainland  of  South  America.  In  the  Philippines,  the 
Spanish  subjugated  the  native  Moros.  The  Danes  reduced 
the  Eskimos  to  a  dependent  status.  The  settlers  of  North 
America  exterminated  the  Indians  or  drove  them  into  the 
interior  as  did  the  English  settlers  in  Australia.  The  Negro 
lias  been  reduced  to  the  status  of  a  slave  by  every  people 
with  whom  the  race  has  come  in  contact. 

Where  the  status  of  one  race  is  absolutely  inferior  to  that 
of  the  other  and  the  social  separation  complete,  the  adjust 
ment  of  the  races  is  frequently  a  harmonious  one.  The  ac 
commodation  of  the  races  under  a  slave  regime,  for  exam 
ple,  is  in  general  marked  by  a  singular  lack  of  racial  fric 
tion.  Under  the  condition  of  freedom  with  its  consequent 
greater  differentiation  within  the  ranks  of  the  backward 
group,  the  racial  superiority  and  inferiority  become  less 

16  See  Bryce,  Relations  of  Advanced  and  Backward  Races.  See,  also, 
Weatherly,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  pp.  478-79. 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the^Rcw  Problem       101 

absolute  and  the  social  separation  :less  comjakte.  •  jFukjior1 
arises  and  prejudice  becomes  active  when,  and  to  the  ex 
tent  that,  the  unlike  races  come  into  association  and  com 
petition. 

Where  there  has  been  this  absolute  separation  of  supe 
rior  and  inferior  groups,  the  half-castes,  as  a  class,  have 
tended  to  acquire  a  distinct  status  in  the  life  of  the  com 
munity.  This  status  is,  in  general,  above  that  of  the  col 
ored  race,  and  inferior  to  the  position  occupied  by  the  dom 
inant  race.  They  everywhere  tended  to  become  a  middle 
class  between  the  races  and  a  connecting  link  between  the 
extremes  of  the  population.  In  the  Philippines,  the  Spanish 
mestizo  stood  midway,  socially,  between  the  parent  ele 
ments.17  The  Chinese-Moro  half-breed  was  superior  to  the 
Moro  and  not  markedly  inferior  to  the  Chinese.  The  same 
midway  position  was  reached  by  the  mulatto  races  of  the 
English  possessions,18  the  metis  of  Brazil,19  the  mixed-blood 
race  of  South  Africa 20  and  the  various  Indian-white  mix 
tures  in  Mexico  and  in  Central  and  South  America.21 

This  tendency  of  the  mixed-blood  group  to  rise  superior 
to  their  racial  status  generally  has  been  modified  by  the  cir 
cumstances  of  the  social  situation.  In  South  Africa,  be 
cause  of  their  numerical  insignificance  and  because  of  the 
racial  intolerance  of  the  small  white  group,22  the  tendency 

"Carl  Crow,  "What  About  the  Filipinos?",  Worlds  Work,  Vol.  26, 
p.  519. 

18  W.  P.  Livingstone,  "The  West-Indian  and  American  Negro,"  North 
American  Review,  Vol.  185,  p-646. 

"Jean  Baptiste  de  Lacerda,  "The  Metis,  or  Half  Breeds,  of  Brazil," 
Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  381. 

30  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa;  A  Study 
in  Sociology,  pp.  298  ff. 

21  James  Bryce,  South  America;  Observations  and  Impressions,  pp. 
481,  492.  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp.  29-30,  40-41,  92,  111. 

23  This  intolerant  attitude  finds  its   explanation  in   the   fact  that   the 


102  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


was  tcrthrust  them.bftck  upon  the  lower  race.  In  Brazil  and 
in  general  throughout  Spanish  America,  the  numerical 
strength  of  the  mixed-blood  group,  in  the  presence  of  a 
relatively  weak  sense  of  either  race  or  national  pride  on  the 
part  of  the  ruling  group,  has  enabled  them  to  claim  social 
recognition  from  the  whites.  In  some  cases,  they  appar 
ently  have  risen  to  the  upper  class  standards  ;  in  other 
cases,  they  have  debased  the  higher  standards  to  the  level 
of  the  mongrel  group.  In  Jamaica  the  insignificant  number 
of  the  ruling  race  has  counseled  the  "divide  and  rule"  policy. 
The  natural  tendency  of  the  mulatto  to  rise  above  the  blacks 
has  been  fostered,  while  a  rigid  separation  from  the  whites 
has  been  maintained.  Thus  they  occupy  a  distinct  middle- 
class  status  in  the  community  life.23 

Psychologically,  the  mulatto  is  an  unstable  type. 

In  the  thinking  of  the  white  race,  the  mulattoes  generally 
are  grouped  with  the  backward  race  and  share  with  them 
the  contempt  and  dislike  of  the  dominant  group.  Nowhere 
are  they  accepted  as  social  equals.  The  discrimination  va 
ries  all  the  way  from  the  more  or  less  successfully  concealed 
contempt  of  the  Brazilian  white  for  the  socially  ambitious 

whites  were  a  small,  isolated  group  in  the  presence  of  an  overwhelming 
number  of  primitive  peoples.  "That  cry,  which  unceasingly  for  genera 
tions  has  rung  out  from  the  Boer  woman's  elbow-chair,  'My  children, 
never  forget  that  you  are  white  men!  Do  always  as  you  have  seen 
your  father  and  mother  do  !'  was  no  cry  of  weak  conservatism,  fearful  of 
change;  it  was  the  embodiment  of  the  passionate  determination  of  a 
great,  little  people,  not  to  lose  the  little  it  possessed  and  so  sink  in  the 
scale  of  being.  To  laugh  at  the  conservatism  of  the  Boer  is  to  laugh 
at  the  man  who,  floating  above  a  whirlpool,  clings  fiercely  with  one  hand 
to  the  only  outstretching  rock  he  can  reach,  and  who  will  not  relax  his 
hold  on  it  by  one  finger,  till  he  has  found  something  firmer  to  grasp." 
Olive  Schreiner,  "The  African  Boer,"  Cosmopolitan,  Vol.  29,  p.  602. 

23  Their  caste  feeling  of  superiority  tends  to  keep  them  a  separate  type. 
See  Finch,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  110. 


The  Mulatto:  the  Key  to  the  Race  Problem      103 

metis,  to  the  open  and  bitter  hatred  of  the  South  African 
for  the  "coloured  man"  and  the  Native  boy,  but  it  seems  to 
be  present  everywhere.     The  origin  of  the  half-castes  was 
everywhere  an  irregular  one;  this  is   a  point  about  which 
prejudice   can   always    center.      Their  nearer  approach   in 
physical  appearance  to  the  white  type  is  simply  taken   as 
evidence  of  additional  irregularities  in  ancestry.     The  two   i 
things — the  lower  ancestry  and  the  presumption   of  a  du-  I 
bious   origin — are  the  focal  points   about  which  the  white  j 
man's  contempt  for  the  mixed-blood  group  centers. 

By  the  native  race,  the  mixed-blood  group  is  generally  s 
accepted  as  superior.     The  possession  of  white  blood  is  an 
evidence  of  superiority.     The  ancestral  blot  excites  no  prej-/ 
udice.     The  mulattoes  are  envied  because  of  their  color  and » 
enjoy  a  prestige  among  the  darker  group  because  of  it. 

Between  these  two  groups,  one  admiring  and  the  other 
despising,  stand  the  mixed-bloods.  In  their  own  estimation, 
they  are  neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  They  despise  the 
lower  race  with  a  bitterness  born  of  their  degrading  asso 
ciation  with  it,  and  which  is  all  the  more  galling  because  it 
needs  must  be  concealed.  They  everywhere  endeavor  to  es 
cape  it  and  to  conceal  and  forget  their  relationship  to  it. 
They  are  uncertain  of  their  own  worth;  conscious  of  their 
superiority  to  the  native  they  are  nowhere  sure  of  their 
equality  with  the  superior  group.  They  envy  the  white, 
aspire  to  equality  with  them,  and  are  embittered  when  the 
realization  of  such  ambition  is  denied  them.  They  are  a 
dissatisfied  and  an  unhappy  group. 

It  is  this  discontented  and  psychologicallv  unstable  group 
which  gives  rise  to  the  acute  phases  of  the  so-called  race 
problem.  The  members  of  the  primitive  group,  recognizing 
the  hopelessness  of  measuring  up  to  the  standards  of  the 
white  race,  are  generally  content  and  satisfied  with  their 


104  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

i  lower  status  and  happy  among  their  own  race.  It  is  the 
mixed-blood  man  who  is  dissatisfied  and  ambitious.  The 
real  race  problem  before  each  country  whose  population 
is  divided  into  an  advanced  and  a  backward  group,  is  to 
determine  the  policy  to  be  pursued  toward  the  backward 
group.  The  acute  phase  of  this  is  to  determine  the  policy 
to  be  adopted  toward  the  mixed-bloods.  To  reject  the 
claims  and  to  deny  the  ambition  of  the  mulattos  may  cause 
them  to  turn  back  upon  the  lower  race.  In  this  case,  they 
may  become  the  intellectual  leaven  to  raise  the  race  to  a 
higher  cultural  level,  or  they  may  become  the  agitators  who 
create  discord  and  strife  between  the  pure-blood  races.  To 
form  them  into  a  separate  caste  between  the  races,  is  to 
lessen  the  clash  between  the  extreme  types  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  deprive  the  members  of  the  lower  race  of  their  chance 
to  advance  in  culture  by  depriving  them  of  their  natural, 
intellectual  leaders.  To  admit  the  ambition  of  the  mulattoes 
to  be  white  and  to  accept  them  into  the  white  race  on  terms 
of  individual  merit,  means  ultimately  a  mongrelization  of 
the  population  and  a  cultural  level  somewhere  between  that 
represented  by  the  standards  of  the  two  groups. 

The  actual  policy  that  has  been  adopted  towards  the 
mixed-blood  race  in  different  countries  and  the  consequent 
role  that  the  mulatto  plays  in  different  situations  will  be 
made  the  subject  of  a  later  chapter.24 

The  tentative  conclusions  here  reached  by  a  review  of 
the  mixed-blood  races  outside  the  American  mulatto  group, 
will  be  further  verified  or  modified  by  a  closer  investigation 
into  the  origin,  growth,  status,  and  role  of  the  mulatto  in 
the  United  States. 

24  Chapter  12. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  AMOUNT   OF  RACE  INTERMIXTURE  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

IN  Negro-white  crosses,  the  characteristic  negroid  feat 
ures  persist  with  noticeably  greater  relative  tenacity 
than  do  the  characteristic  Caucasian  features.1  In  the 
mixed-blood  population,  therefore,  the  great  majority  of 
those  individuals  in  whom  Negro  blood  predominates  pass  as 
Negroes  of  pure  blood,  while  in  crosses  where  the  white  blood 
largely  predominates,  the  Negro  characteristics  are  still 
quite  noticeable.2  As  a  result,  that  part  of  the  population 
commonly  classed  as  mulatto  contains  far  more  white  than 
Negro  blood,  and  the  actual  number  of  mixed-bloods  is 

1  Boaz,  in  studying  Indian-white  crosses,  found  similar  results.     "We 
find  .  .  .  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  Indian  type  has  a  stronger  in 
fluence  upon  the  offspring  than  the  white  type.     The  same  fact  is  ex 
pressed  in  the  great  frequency  of  dark  hair  and  of  dark  eyes  among 
the  half-breeds."     Franz  Boaz,  "The  Half-Breed  Indian,"  Popular  Sci 
ence  Monthly,  Vol.  45,  p.  768.     See,  also,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man, 
pp.  78  ff;  and  "Zur  Anthropologie  der  nordamerikanischen   Indianer." 
Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fur  Anthropologie,  Ethnologie 
und  Urgeschichte.   27:366  ff.;  and  F.  von  Luschan,  "Die  Tachtadschy  u. 
andere    Ueberreste   der    alten    Bevolkerung   Lykiens,"    Archiv    fur   An 
thropologie,  19:31  if.,  who  points  out  the  same  fact  as  regards  the  mixed 
population  of  Southern  Asia  Minor.    See  James  Oliver,  "The  Hereditary 
Tendency  to  Twinning,"  Eugenics  Review,  Vol.  4,  p.  40. 

2  H.  Gregoire  estimated  that  five  generations  with  no  Negro  blood  after 
the  original  cross  were  necessary  to  make  it  possible   for  a  Negro  to 
pass  as  a  white  man.     Literature  of  Negroes,  p.  29.     "Where  the  pro 
portion  is  less  than  one-eighth  of  African  blood  the  distinction  of  class 
begins  to  be  obscured,  .  .  ."    The  Compendium  of  the  Seventh  Census  of 
the   United  States,  1850,  p.  62. 

-      105 


r) 


106  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

likely  to  be  greater  than  a  set  of  census  figures  shows.3  The 
desire,  too,  of  the  Negroes  themselves  to  claim  as  full-blood 
all  dark  mulattoes  of  prominence  tends  further  to  obscure 
the  facts. 

Moreover,  the  actual  statistics  of  race  intermixture  in 
the  United  States  4  are  of  the  most  meager  sort,  and  those 
available  are  not  always  wholly  dependable.5  This  is  more 
especially  the  case  as  investigation  is  pushed  toward  the 
beginning  of  the  group.  The  only  general  statistics  are 
those  of  the  Federal  Censuses  of  1850,  1860,  1870,  1890 
and  1910.  No  other  general  census  made  a  distinction  in 
the  returns  between  the  full-blood  and  the  mixed-blood  Ne 
groes.  Prior  to  1850,  that  is  for  four-fifths  of  the  period 
that  the  Negro  has  been  in  America,  there  are  only  occa 
sional  estimates  and  partial  statistical  reports  of  sections, 
states,  or  cities  made  for  special  purposes. 

The  institution  of  slavery  is  indigenous  to  Africa,  and 
the  slave  trade  has  been  carried  on  there  since  time  imme 
morial.  At  the  time  of  the  American  colonization  and  de 
velopment,  the  traffic  in  African  slaves,  captured  on  the 
West  Coast,  or  purchased  from  the  native  African  slave 

3  C.  K.  Needham,  "A  Comparison  of  Some  Conditions  in  Jamaica  with 
those  in  the  United  States,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  4,  p. 
192,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  Jamaica  the  samhos — individuals 
about  three-fourths   Negro  blood — ustfally  do  not  return  themselves  as 
mixed  bloods.     It  is  notorious  that  in  this  country  many  brown  Negroes 
call  themselves  full  bloods  and  so  pass  in  their  group.     It  is  the  excep 
tional  Negro,  of  course,  who  knows  what  his  ancestry  was  for  more  than  a 
generation.    See,  for  example,  William  Pickens,  The  Heir  of  Slaves,  p.  4. 

4  In  South  America  and  Central  America  and  Mexico  the  statistics  are 
wholly  unreliable  as  the  tendency  is  for  every  one  to  call  himself  white 
if  he  has  any  trace  of  white  blood.     See  p.  47  above. 

6  "The  censuses  of  mulattoes,  as  distinguished  from  full-blooded  ne 
groes,  taken  in  1850,  I860,  1870  and  1890,  though  subject  to  a  far  greater 
and  wholly  indeterminate  probable  error,  have  shown  a  general  agree 
ment  of  results."  United  States  Census,  1890,  Population,  Vol.  I,  Part 
1,  p.  185. 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     107 

dealers,  was  an  important  and  profitable  business  carried 
on  with  the  sanction  of  the  more  important  nations  of 
Europe.  American  colonization  opened  a  new  market  for 
the  slave  dealers  and  slavery  was  introduced  into  most  of 
the  colonies  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  founded.6  Georgia 
was  the  only  exception.  This  colony  started  with  ordi 
nances  against  the  institution,  but  political  pressure  from 
the  mother  country,  combined  with  business  competition 
and  social  pressure  at  home,  overcame  the  first  intention  so 
that  slavery  was  introduced  into  the  colony  and  legalized 
seventeen  years  after  its  founding. 

For  a  century  there  was  a  very  slow'  increase  in  the 
number  of  Negroes  in  the  colonies.7  Increased  importa 
tions  began  after  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury,  and  the  number  of  Negro  slaves  grew  rapidly.  For 
three-quarters  of  a  century,  the  natural  increase  was  being 
constantly  added  to  by  an  ever  and  ever  greater  importa 
tion.  The  actual  number  of  importations,  as  well  as  the 
actual  number  of  slaves,  can  only  be  estimated.8 

"Virginia  1619;  Massachusetts  before  1633;  Connecticut  from  the  first 
settlement  of  the  colony;  Maryland  1634  or  earlier;  Delaware  probably 
in  1636;  Georgia  1749;  Rhode  Island  and  each  of  the  remaining  colonies 
had  slaves  from  their  founding. 

7  The  Compendium  of  the  Seventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  1850, 
p.  83,  quotes   from   Mr.   Carey's  work  on   the  Slave  Trade  as   follows: 
".  .  .  the  trade  in  negro  slaves  to  the  American  colonies  was  too  small 
before  1753  to  attract  attention." 

8  Carey's  estimate  of  slave  importations: 

Prior  to  1715  30,000 

1715—1750  90,000 

1751—1760  35,000 

1761—1770  74,000 

1771—1790  34,000 

1791—1808  70,000 

Total  333,000 

"It  is  claimed,  however,  that  this  total  is  too  small,  and  that  a  closer 


108 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


The  number  of  the  Negroes  was  very  different  in  the  dif 
ferent  colonies,  though  there  was  an  increase  in  number  in 
all  sections  of  the  country  until  at  least  the  middle  of  the 
century.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
negro  slavery  was  considered  by  the  settlers  of  the  colonies 
as  a  usual  and  routine  matter,  and  in  the  New  England 
and  Middle  Colonies,  as  well  as  in  the  South,  the  possession 
of  slaves  was  generally  accepted  as  an  evidence  of  wealth 
and  importance  in  the  community."  9  By  the  middle  of  the 
century  it  existed  by  legal  sanction  in  each  of  the  colonies.10 
estimate  would  bring  the  number  to  370,000  or  even  400,000."  "Mr. 
Carey's  figures  indicate  that  the  average  annual  importation  was  about 
2,500  between  1715  and  1750,  and  3,500  for  the  period  between  1751 
and  1760.  The  following  decade  was  the  period  of  greatest  activity,  the 
importations  reaching  an  average  of  7,400  a  year.  For  the  20  years  from 
1771  to  1790  the  average  fell  to  1,700,  but  for  the  period  immediately 
preceding  the  legal  abolition  of  the  slave  traffic  in  the  United  States 
it  was  more  than  double  that  number."  A  Century  of  Population 
Growth,  United  States  Census,  1890,  p.  36. 
•Ibid.,  p.  37. 


10  Slave  population : 

Colonies  1715  a 

Connecticut  1,500 
Delaware 
Georgia 

Maryland  9,500 

New  Hampshire  150 

New  Jersey  1,500 

New  York  4,000 

North  Carolina  3,700 

Pennsylvania  2,500 

Rhode  Island  500 

South  Carolina  10,500 

Virginia  23,000 

Massachusetts  2,000 


1775  a 

5,000 

9,000 

16,000 

80,000 

629 

7,600 

15,000 

75,000 

10,000 

4,373 

110,000 

165,000 

3,500 


1790  b 

2,648 

8,887 

29,264 

103,036 

157 

11,423 

21,193 

100,783 

3,707 

958 

107,094 
292,627 


»G.  W.  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p. 
325. 

b  A  Century  of  Population  Growth,  p.  132. 
c  Includes  Delaware. 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     109 

The  crossing  of  the  races  began  from  the  very  first  in 
troduction  of  the  Negroes  into  the  country.  The  first  law 
in  regard  to  slavery  was  an  act  not  to  establish,  or  even 
to  provide  a  legal  basis  for,  the  institution  but  to  "fix  a 
rule  by  which  the  status  of  mulatto  children  could  be  de 
termined."11  This  was  in  1662,  forty-three  years  after 
the  Dutch  traders  had  sold  to  the  planters  of  Jamestown 
the  first  African  Negroes  brought  to  America.  The  total 
population  at  the  time  probably  did  not  exceed  one  thou 
sand.12 

In  Maryland  the  first  statute  concerning  slavery  was  in 
1663.13  It  had  for  its  object  the  deterring  of  English 
women  from  marrying  with  slaves  and  had  to  do  with  the 
offspring  of  Negro  slaves  who  had  intermarried,  or  in  the 
future  should  intermarry,  with  white  women.14  This  was 
twenty  years  after  the  first  introduction  of  slavery  into  the 
colony. 

Massachusetts  already  was  requiring  military  service  of 
certain  classes  of  her  free  Negroes  and  mulattoes  by  1707, 
though  the  total  number  of  Negroes  at  the  time  scarcely 
exceeded  half  a  thousand,  most  of  whom  had  come  in  dur 
ing  the  quarter  of  a  century  just  preceding.15  Intermix- 

11 J.  H.  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  p.  19. 

"In  1648  the  number  was  about  300;  in  1670  it  was  given  as  2,000. 
See  Chambers,  American  Colonies,  Vol.  2,  p.  7. 

"Slavery  seems  to  have  been  mentioned  incidentally  in  a  law  pro 
posed  in  1638.  See  J.  W.  Cromwell,  The  Negro  in  American  History, 
p.  3. 

"Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  240. 

"In  1676  there  were  said  to  be  some  two  hundred  Negroes,  chiefly 
from  Guinea  and  Madagascar  in  the  colony.  Four  years  later  Governor 
Bradstreet  estimated  that  ".  .  .  there  may  be  within  our  Government 
about  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  .  .  .  there  are  very  few 
blacks  borne  here.  .  .  ."  In  1708  Governor  Dudley  estimated  the  num 
ber  at  550.  G.  H.  Moore,  Notes  on  the  History  of  Slavery  in  Massa- 


110  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ture  must  have  begun  early  in  order  that  there  could  be 
a  body  of  mixed-bloods  at  this  time  sufficiently  numerous 
to  be  made  the  object  of  legislative  enactment.  Eleven 
years  later,  another  act  was  passed  having  for  its  object 
the  fixing  of  the  status  of  mulatto  slaves  and  mulattoes 
who  were  servants  for  a  term  of  years. 

In  Pennsylvania  intermixture  was  already  going  on  be 
fore  the  colony  was  ceded  to  William  Penn  in  1681.  A  white 
servant  was  indicted  in  1677  for  having  sexual  intercourse 
with  a  Negro.16  A  settlement  in  Sussex  County  bore  the 
name  of  "Mulatto  Hall."  17  In  1698  the  County  Court  of 
Chester  County  forbade  the  mixture  of  races.18  Again  in 
172&,  a  woman  was  punished  for  "abetting  a  clandestine 
marriage  between  a  white  woman  and  a  negro."  19  The 
same  year  the  Assembly  received  a  petition  praying  for  re 
lief  from  the  "wicked  and  scandalous  practice  of  Negroes 
cohabiting  with  white  people.20  A  general  law  of  1725-86 
forbade  the  mixture  of  the  races.  By  the  close  of  the  colo 
nial  period,  one  hundred  years  after  the  colony  was  ceded 
to  William  Penn, — 1681 — the  mulattoes  constituted  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  slave  population  of  Chester  County.  Nearly 
half  the  Negroes  in  Pennsylvania  were  free  at  that  time.21 
The  percentage  of  mulattoes  was  doubtless  greater  among 
them  than  among  the  total  Negro  population  or  among 
the  slaves. 

What  was  true  in  this  respect  in  regard  to  Virginia,  Mary 
land,  and  Pennsylvania  was  equally  true  of  the  other  colo- 

chuselts,  pp.  49  ff.  See,  also,  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in 
America,  Vol.  1,  pp.  183,  184. 

16  E.  R.  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  29. 

"Ibid.,  p.  30.  "Ibid.,  p.  30,  ™  Ibid.,  p.  30. 

"Ibid.,  p.  30. 

21  In  1790  the  slaves  numbered  3,707  and  the  free  Negroes  6,531.  A 
Century  of  Population  Growth,  pp.  222-23. 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     111 

nies.  In  New  York,  in  1706,  twenty-two  years  after  the 
first  introduction  of  Negroes,  mulattoes  were  sufficiently 
numerous  to  be  made  the  subject  of  legislative  enactment. 
Connecticut  began  her  black  code  in  1690  by  passing  a 
series  of  measures  in  which  mulattoes  were  enumerated  with 
Negroes  and  Indians.22  The  first  act  of  Rhode  Island  was 
one  recognizing  the  manumitting  or  setting  free  of  mulatto 
and  Negro  slaves.23  New  Hampshire  never  legally  estab 
lished  slavery,  but  as  early  as  1714*  passed  several  laws 
regulating  the  conduct  of  "Indian,  Negro  and  mulatto  ser 
vants  or  slaves."  24  The  first  legislation  of  Delaware  in 
1721  mentions  mulattoes.25  North  Carolina  was  settled 
from  Virginia  and  as  some  of  the  settlers  brought  slaves 
with  them  into  the  new  territory,  there  were  probably  mu 
lattoes  in  the  colony  as  soon  as  there  were  Negroes.  The 
first  statutory  recognition  of  slavery  was  in  an  act  against 
intermarriage  passed  in  1715. 26  South  Carolina's  first  posi 
tive  slave  act,  1712,  mentions  27  mestizos  as  well  as  mulat 
toes,  Negroes,  and  Indians,  and  implies  that  there  were 
members  of  these  classes  who  were  free  as  well  as  members 
who  were  slaves.  In  New  Jersey  the  usual  formula  in 
cluding  Negro,  Indian,  and  mulatto  slaves  appears  in  the 
legislation  at  least  as  early  as  171 4.28 

M  B.  C.  Steiner,  A  History  of  Slavery  in  Connecticut,  pp.  12-13.  Wil 
liams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  254. 

23  Ibid.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  262-63. 

24  Ibid.,  p.  310. 
KIbid.,  p.  250. 

211 J.  S.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Caro 
lina,  p.  15. 

'"Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  290. 

28  H.  S.  Cooley,  A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey,  p.  39.  "In  1704 
'An  Act  for  regulating  negroe,  Indian  and  mulatto  slaves  within  the 
province  of  New  Jersey,'  was  introduced,  but  was  tabled  and  disal 
lowed."  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  285. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

While  it  is  thus  clearly  evident  that  the  mixture  of  the 
races  went  on  in  all  the  colonies  from  a  very  early  date,  no 
definite  information  exists  as  to  the  number  of  mulattoes 
at  any  time  during  the  colonial  period.29  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  it  was  relatively  more  rapid  than 
during  the  period  that  slavery  existed  as  a  national  insti 
tution  30  and  this  seems  to  be  borne  out  by  the  few  statis 
tics  available. 

A  census  of  Maryland  in  1755  returned  eight  per  cent 
of  the  Negroes  as  mulattoes.  Out  of  a  total  Negro  popu 
lation  of  42,764,  the  mixed-bloods  numbered  3,592.31  At 
that  time,  Maryland  had  about  one-sixth  of  the  total  Negro 
population  of  the  country.32  On  the  assumption  that  Mary 
land  was  a  typical  average  of  the  colonies  so  far  as  racial 
intermixture  was  concerned — and  this  would  seem  to  be  a 
fairly  reasonable  assumption — there  would  have  been  21,552 
mulattoes  in  the  country  at  that  time.  Allowing  twenty- 
five  years  for  the  mulatto  population  to  double  33  by  nat 
ural  increase,  that  is,  by  interbreeding  and  intermarriage 
with  the  blacks,  they  would  have  numbered  approximately 
sixty  thousand  by  1790.  Assuming  that  intermixture  went 
on  during  the  years  between  1755  and  1790  as  it  had  dur 
ing  the  preceding  decades,  and  allowing  for  the  enormously 
greater  number  of  both  the  white  and  the  black  population, 
the  number  would  easily  double  the  above  figure  by  the  be 
ginning  of  the  national  period. 

The  statistics  of  free  Negroes  throw  no  light  upon  the 
subject.  Of  the  3,608  mixed-bloods  in  Maryland  in  1755, 

29  See  A  Century  of  Population  Growth,  p.  91. 
80  See  pp.  128,  147  ff.,  158  f.,  163  below. 
81 A  Century  of  Population  Growth,  p.  6.    See,  also,  p.  185. 
83  The  total   Negro   population   of  the   English  Colonies   in   1754   was 
260,000.     That  of  Maryland  in  1755  was  42,764. 

88  This  has  been  the  approximate  rate  of  increase  since  1860, 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     115 

and  five  thousand  Negroes  in  the   state  in  the  year  men 
tioned.40     This  preponderance  of  mulattoes  in  the  city  as 
against  the   rural   districts   was   especially  the   case  in  the  * 
South,  but  the  difference  was  marked  in  all  sections  of  the 
country.41 

40  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  197.     Russell,  The  Free  Ne 
gro   in    Virginia,   pp.    14-15,   points    out    the   larger    per    cent   of    free 
Negroes  in  the  urban  population  in  colonial  days  and  during  the  whole 
period  of  slavery. 

41  Per  cent  of  mulattoes  in  total  Negro  population  of  a  chief  city  and 
of   the   rest   of  the   state   of   typical    Southern,    Border    and    Northern 
States  in  1860. 

Area  1860 
Georgia 

Savannah  City  18.1 

Rest  of  State  8.2 
Louisiana 

New  Orleans  City  48.9 

Rest  of  State  11.0 
South  Carolina 

Charleston  City  25.2 

Rest  of  State  5.5 
Kentucky 

Jefferson  Co.   (Louisville)  21.8 

Rest  of  State  20.0 
Missouri 

St.  Louis  County  (St.  Louis)         32.7 

Rest  of  State  19.2 
Virginia 

Richmond  City  21.4 

Rest  of  State  16.9 
New  York 

King's  County   (Brooklyn)  19.5     (N.  Y.  City  3.3) 

Rest  of  State  20.3 
Illinois 

Cook  County   (Chicago)  49.3 

Rest  of  State  46.8 
Massachusetts 

Suffolk    Co.    (Boston)  38.3 

Rest  of  State  29.9 
United  States  Census,  1890,  Population,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  191. 


116  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The   first   Federal   Census   to   make   separate    returns   of 

Vthe  mixed-bloods  was  that  of  1850.    At  that  time,  they  con- 

Istituted  something  over  eleven  per  cent  of  the  Negro  pop- 

•v.4;ulation  of  the  country.42     Of  the  total  mulatto  population 

^approximately  forty  per  cent  were  free  and  the  remaining 

sisixty  per  cent  slaves.43    Of  the  free  mulattoes  approximately 

>C  two-thirds  were  in  the  slave  states.44      Of   the  total  slave 

y ,  population  about  eight  per  cent  were  mixed-bloods  45  while 

*X  about  thirty-seven  per  cent  of  the  free  Negro  population 

were  mulattoes.46     Among  the  free  Negroes,  the  per  cent 

A  of  mulattoes  was   considerably  higher  in  the  slave  than  in 

^  the  free  states.47     But  as  the  whole  Negro  population  of 

42  Blacks   3,233,057;   Mulattoes   405,751.      United   States    Census,    1910, 
Population,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  129. 

43  Free  159,095 
Slave                                                         246,656 

The  Compendium  of   the  Seventh   Census  of   the    United  States,  1850, 
pp.  64,  82. 

44  Free  mulatto 

Slave  states  105,945 

Free  states  53,150 
Ibid.,  p.  83. 

45  Slave  population  3,204,313 

Black  2,957,657 

Mulatto  246,656 

Ibid.,  p.  82. 

48  Free  Negroes  434,495 

Black  275,400 

Mulatto  159,095 

Ib id.,  p.  62. 

Free  Negroes 
Slave  States 

Black  151,076 

Mulatto  105,945 

Free  States 

Black  124,334 

Mulatto  53,150 

Ibid.,  p.  83. 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     117 

the  North  was  free  at  this  time,  the  only  comparison  with 
any  point  is  that  between  the  total  Negro  population  of 
the  two  regions.  Nearly  one-half  the  Negroes  of  the  North- 
ern  States  were  mixed-bloods,  as  against  about  one-ninth 
those  in  the  slave-holding  states.  In  summarizing  the 
distribution  in  different  regions,  the  Census  Report  of  1850 
says : 48 

The  mulattoes  in  the  United  States  are  about  one- 
eighth  as  numerous  as  the  blacks — the  free  mulattoes 
are  more  than  half  the  number  of  the  free  blacks, 
whilst  the  slave  mulattoes  are  only  about  one-twelfth 
of  the  sjave  blacks.  Between  the  states  the  ratios  are 
very  remarkable.  Whilst  nearly  half  of  the  colored  in 
the  non-slaveholding  states  are  mulatto,  only  about 
one-ninth  in  the  slaveholding  states  are  mulatto,  ex 
cluding  New  Jersey.  In  Ohio  and  the  Territories  there 
are  more  mulattoes  than  blacks.  In  nearly  all  of  the 
slave  states,  except  Kentucky,  Arkansas  and  Missouri, 
etc.,  the  free  mulattoes  greatly  preponderate  over  the 
free  blacks.  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  Missouri  and  Texas 
have  the  largest  portion  of  slave  mulattoes,  and  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  they  are  about  one-fourth  of  the 
whole. 

"•  Since  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  the  census  figures 
y.  show  an  immensely  more  rapid  increase  among  the  mu 
lattoes  than  among  the  darker  members  of  the  race.  The 
returns  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole  for  the  five  census 
periods  for  which  there  was  a  separate  enumeration  of  the 
mulattoes  is  as  follows :  49 

48  The  Compendium  of  the  Seventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  1850, 
p.  82. 

49  United  States  Census,  1910,  Population,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  129.    There 
is  a  constant  effort  on  the  part  of  the  mulattoes  to  make  the  proportion 
appear  larger.     "The  figures  as  to  mulattoes  have  been  taken  from  time 
to  time  and  are  officially  acknowledged  to  be  understatements.     Prob- 


118 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Census 
Year 
1850 
1860 
1870 
1890 
1910 

*  Includes 


CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES 

NEGRO  POPULATION 

< 

Total 


Per  cent 


Negro 
3,638,808 
4,441,830 
4,880,009 
*7,488,676 
9,827,763 

18,636   Negroes 


Mulatto  Mulatto 


Black 
3,233,057 
3,853,467 
4,295,960 
6,337,980 
7,777,077 

enumerated   in   Indian   Territory   not   dis 


405,751 

588,363 

584,049 

1,132,060 

2,050,686 


11.2 
13.2 
12.0 
15.2 
20.9 


tinguished  as  black  or  mulatto. 


Doubtless  these  figures  contain  inaccuracies,  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  for  the  opinion  often  expressed  that 
they  are  fundamentally  misleading.50  The  Census  itself 

ably  one-third  of  the  Negroes  of  the  United  States  have  distinct  traces 
of  white  blood."  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  The  Negro,  pp.  184-85.  He  adds: 
"There  is  also  a  large  amount  of  Negro  blood  in  the  white  population." 
See,  also,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  350.  Fortune's  statement  is  even 
more  absurd:  "The  blood  of  all  the  ethnic  types  that  go  to  make  up 
American  citizenship  flows  in  the  veins  of  the  Afro-American  people 
so  that  of  the  ten  million  of  them  in  this  country,  accounted  for  by 
the  Federal  census,  not  more  than  four  million  are  of  pure  negroid 
descent,  while  some  four  million  of  them,  not  accounted  for  by  the 
Federal  census,  have  escaped  into  the  ranks  of  the  white  race,  and  are 
reen  forced  very  largely  by  such  escapements  every  year."  T.  T.  For 
tune,  "Place  in  American  Life."  In  Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Negro 
Problem,  pp.  214-15. 

60  Question  as  to  the  accuracy  of  these  Census  figures  is  frequently 
raised.  A  good  deal  of  this  popular  skepticism  seems  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  a  widely  read  book  by  Mr.  Ray  Stannard  Baker.  Mr.  Baker 
says:  "In  the  last  census  (1900)  the  government  gave  up  the  attempt 
in  discouragement  of  trying  to  enumerate  the  mulattoes  at  all,  and 
counted  all  persons  as  Negroes  who  were  so  classed  in  the  communities 
where  they  resided.  The  census  of  1870  showed  that  one-eighth  (roughly) 
of  the  Negro  population  was  mulatto,  that  of  1890  showed  that  the 
proportion  had  increased  to  more  than  one-seventh,  but  these  statistics 
are  confessedly  inaccurate;  the  census  report  itself  says:  'The  figures 
are  of  little  value.  Indeed  as  an  indication  of  the  extent  to  which 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     119 

says: 

.  .  .  The  only  available  test  of  the  trustworthiness  of 
the  results  reached  in  1850,  1860,  1870  and  1890  would 
be  the  degree  to  which  they  corroborated  and  confirmed 
one  another. 


And  again: 


51 


.  .  .  the  censuses  of  mulattoes,  as  distinguished  from 
full-blood  negroes,  .  .  .  though  subject  to  a  greater 
[i.  e.,  greater  than  the  returns  of  the  Negro]  and 
wholly  indeterminate  probable  error,  have  shown  a 
general  agreement  of  results. 

This  increase  in  the  mulatto  population  has  been  general 
throughout  all  sections  of  the  country;  each  division  has 
shown  a  marked  increase  from  census  to  census.  Not  only 
have  numbers  increased,  but  the  percentage  of  mulattoes 
to  full-blood  Negroes  has  increased  everywhere  except  in 
the  Mountain,  Pacific  and  East  North  Central  divisions. 
While  the  number  of  mulattoes  has  of  course  been  far 

the  races  have  mingled,  they  are  misleading.'"  Following  the  Color  Line, 
p.  153. 

Mr.  E.  B.  DuBois,  "The  Negro  Race  in  the  United  States  of  Amer 
ica,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  350,  and  elsewhere,  apparently  following 
Mr.  Baker,  reiterates  the  same  error. 

The  Census  Report  (Eleventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  1890, 
Vol.  1,  Part  I,  p.  xciii.  See,  also,  United  States  Census,  1900,  Popu 
lation,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  cxi.)  does  use  the  words  quoted  by  Mr.  Baker 
but  in  a  context  which  wholly  changes  their  significance.  The  census 
of  1890  undertook  to  divide  the  Negroes  into  Negroes,  mulattoes,  quad 
roons,  and  octoroons.  Regarding  the  results  of  this  last  inquiry  the 
census  report  used  the  words  quoted  by  Mr.  Baker.  To  acknowledge 
that  the  attempt  to  make  a  minute  subdivision  of  the  race  into  Negroes, 
mulattoes,  quadroons  and  octoroons  was  not  considered  successful  is 
quite  a  different  matter  from  asserting  that  the  enumeration  of  mu 
lattoes  as  distinct  from  the  blacks  is  "of  doubtful  validity  and  officially 
acknowledged  to  be  misleading." 

nU.  S.  Census,  1890.    Population,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  p.  185. 


120  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

greater  in  the  Southern  sections  of  the  country  at  all  periods 
covered  by  the  census  returns,  the  percentage  of  mulattoes 
alwaj's  has  been  greater  in  the  Northern  sections.  The 
following  tabulation  shows  both  the  numerical  and  percent- 
ual  increase  in  the  different  divisions  thus  allowing  a  com 
parison  between  different  sections  of  the  country. 

NUMBER  OF  MULATTOES  AND  THE  PERCENTAGE  THEY  FORMED  OF  THE 
TOTAL  NEGRO  POPULATION 

1870     1890     1910-2 

1870  1890  1910 

DIVISIONS  Total  Per  cent  Total  Per  cent  Total  Per  cent 


New  England 

9  080 

28.6 

14  579 

32.7 

22  150 

33.4 

Middle  Atlantic 

21  989 

14.9 

48  152 

21.4 

81  969 

19.6 

E.  N.  Central 

38  125 

29.2 

76  999 

37.2 

99  809 

33.2 

W.  N.  Central 

22  880 

16.0 

56  782 

25.2 

69  631 

28.7 

South  Atlantic 

230  721 

10.4 

438  785 

13.4 

855  819 

20.8 

E.  S.  Central 

162  228 

11.1 

289  035 

13.6 

507  055 

19.1 

W.  S.  Central 

96  755 

13.1 

197  124 

14.5 

397  986 

20.1 

Mountain 

473 

30.0 

4  637 

35.7 

6  135 

28.6 

Pacific 

1  798 

37.0 

5  967 

42.3 

10  132 

34.7 

Total  U.  S. 

684  049 

12.0 

1  132  060 

15.2 

2  050  686 

20.9 

While  there  has  thus  been  a  general  and  a  decided  in 
crease  in  all  sections  of  the  country  since  the  emancipation 
of  the  slaves,  the  actual  increase,  of  course,  has  been 
greatest  in  the  former  slave  states.  The  percentage  of  mu-' 
lattoes  to  blacks  has  also  increased  more  rapidly  in  the 
Southern  states.  Many  of  the  Northern  states  show  a  de 
crease  in  the  mulatto  percentages  during  the  half-century 
of  freedom.53  The  following  tabulation  shows  the  num- 

™  Negroes  in  the  United  Stales,  United  States  Census  Bulletin  129, 
1915,  p.  60. 

D3  The  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  mulattoes  in  certain  of  the  North 
ern  States  seems  to  be  indicative  of  nothing  except  a  migratory  move 
ment  of  the  Negro  population.  The  movement  of  the  Northern  Negroes, 
who  have  a  high  percentage  of  mixed-bloods,  tends  to  increase  the  mu 
latto  percentage  of  the  Southern  states,  while  the  migration  of  the 
southern  Negroes,  with  a  smaller  percentage  of  mixed-bloods,  tends 
to  decrease  the  mulatto  percentages  in  the  North.  Owing  to  the  great 
number  of  the  race  in  the  Southern  States  the  effect  of  the  movment  is 
scarcly  noticeable  there  but  in  the  states  where  the  actual  number  of 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     121 


her  of  mulattoes  and  their  percentage  of  the  total  Negro 
population  of  the  state  as  enumerated  in  1860  and  1910. 

NUMBER  AND  PERCENTAGE  OF  MULATTOES  IN  DIFFERENT 

STATES 


1860  AND  1910 
1860  54 

Number  of 
Mulattoes  Per  cent 


1910  55 

Number  of 
Mulattoes  Per  cent 


Arkansas 

Alabama 

S.   Carolina 

Connecticut 

N.    Carolina 

California 

D.  of  C. 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

Missouri 

Minnesota 

Maine 

Negroes  is  very  small  the  immigration  or  emigration  of  a  few  families 
is  sufficient  to  change  the  percentage  of  the  colors.  It  is  just  those  states 
with  a  small  Negro  population  where  the  effect  of  migrations  would 
most  quickly  show  in  statistical  tables  which  show  a  decreased  percentage 
of  mulattoes  to  Negroes. 

04  United  States  Census,  1860,  Population,  pp.  598-99. 

65 Negroes  in  the  United  States,  United  States  Census,  Bulletin  129, 
1915,  p.  60. 


14,136 

12.7 

36,428 

8.3 

28,314 

6.9 

1,901 

22.0 

44,798 

12.4 

1,526 

37.7 

5,433 

28.0 

2,979 

13.8 

5,896 

9.4 

38,904 

8.4 

3,587 

47.1 

5,447 

47.7 

568 

53.1 

268 

42.7 

47,359 

20.1 

47,781 

13.6 

3,071 

32.0 

24,913 

14.6 

23,588 

19.9 

169 

65.3 

634 

47.8 

81,371 

18.4 

151,410 

16.7 

134,381 

16.1 

3,746 

24.7 

144,123 

20.7 

7,858 

36.3 

32,952 

34.9 

3,706 

11.9 

49,511 

16.0 

204,205 

17.3 

36,828 

33.8 

14,553 

24.1 

3,644 

24.3 

16,141 

29.9 

65,943 

25.2 

152,577 

21.4 

13,955 

36.7 

43,152 

18.6 

44,690 

28.4 

2,616 

36.9 

626 

45.9 

122 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Number  of 
Mulattoes  Per  cent 


Number  of 
Mulattoes  Per  cent 


Michigan 

3,375 

49.6 

8,036 

47.0 

Mississippi 

37,219 

8.5 

171,005 

16.9 

New  York 

7,781 

15.9 

30,608 

22.8 

New  Jersey 

3,462 

13.7 

14,207 

15.8 

New  Hampshire 

253 

51.2 

208 

36.9 

Oregon 

62 

48.4 

434 

29.1 

Ohio 

16,691 

45.5 

39,249 

35.2 

Pennsylvania 

19,142 

33.6 

37,154 

19.2 

Rhode  Island 

997 

25.2 

3,179 

33.4 

Texas 

25,260 

13.8 

124,695 

18.1 

Tennessee 

41,878 

14.8 

118,697 

25.1 

Vermont 

192 

27.1 

436 

26.9 

Virginia 

93,464 

17.0 

222,910 

33.2 

Wisconsin 

737 

62.9 

1,143 

39.4 

The  distribution  of  the  mulatto  population,  at  all  times 
for  which  the  facts  are  known,  has  been  in  general  accord 
with  the  ratio  of  the  races.  Where  the  proportion  of  whites 
in  the  total  population  is  highest,  the  mulatto  population, 
as  a  rule,  is  highest;  and  where  the  proportion  of  Negroes 
in  the  general  population  is  highest,  there  as  a  rule,  the 
percentage  of  mulattoes  is  lowest.  The  minor  divisions 
ranked  in  the  order  of  increasing  per  cent  of  mulattoes  in 
the  Negro  population  is  seen  in  the  tabulation  (p.  123) 
from  the  census  returns  of  1890  to  parallel,  in  general,  the 
decreasing  per  cent  of  Negroes  in  the  general  population. 

The  tabulation  shows  that  the  per  cent  of  mulattoes  in 
creases  as  the  proportion  of  Negroes  decreases.  From  the 
great  black  belt  of  the  South  to  the  Northern  States,  there 
is  a  decreasing  proportion  of  Negroes  in  the  general  pop 
ulation  and  an  increasing  percentage  of  mulattoes  in  the 
Negro  population.  "The  general  conclusion  seems  war 
ranted  that  the  proportion  of  mulattoes  to  total  negroes 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     123 

RANK  OF  MINOR  DIVISIONS  IN  ORDER  OF  INCREASING  PER 
CENT  MULATTO  TO  NEGRO  POPULATION 

Minor  divisions  having  at     Rank  in  order  of  increasing  per       Per  cent  ne- 
least  1000  negroes  cent  mulatto  in  total  negro  gro  in  to- 

in  1850  population  tal  popu 

lation 
1890         1870         1860          1850 

Southern  S.  Atlantic  1111  45.5 

Eastern  S.   Central  2222  33.0 

Western  S.  Central  3333  29.1 

Northern  S.  Atlantic  4444  25.6 

Southern  N.  Atlantic  5567  1.8 

Western  N.  Atlantic  6655  2.5 

New  England  7778  0.9 

Eastern  N.  Central  8899  1.6 

Pacific  9986  0.8 

was  found  by  the  enumerators  to  be  high  or  low,  according 
as  the  proportion  of  whites  to  negroes  is  high  or  low."  B6 
The  figures  of  the  separate  states  bear  out  this  conclusion 
in  some  detail.57 

Commenting  upon   this   distribution   of  mulattoes   Stone 

68  United  States  Census,  1890,  Population,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  pp.  190,  191. 
Also,  "The  figures  also  indicate  that  this  admixture  was  found  to  be 
most  prevalent  in  sections  where  the  proportions  of  negroes  to  whites 
was  smallest,  and  least  prevalent  where  the  proportion  of  negroes  to 
whites  was  largest."  Ibid.,  p.  190.  And  again,  "The  table  seems  to 
show  that  as  a  rule  the  states  with  the  largest  proportion  of  negroes  to* 
total  population  have  the  smallest  reported  proportion  of  mulattoes  to  » 
total  negroes.  To  this  general  rule  Louisiana  is  a  notable  exception,  that 
being  third  in  order  of  proportion  of  negroes  to  population,  but  ranging 
from  eighth  to  sixteenth  in  order  of  proportion  of  mulattoes  to  ne 
groes."  Ibid.,  p.  190.  The  exception  in  the  case  of  Louisiana  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  of  the  early  French  and  Spanish  occupation, 
by  the  fact  of  it  being  an  older  settlement  and  by  the  fact  that  the 
transfer  of  the  territory  to  the  United  States  created  a  large  population 
of  free  Negroes. 

57  See  table  p.  122.     Compare  pp.  79  ff. 


124  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

says : 58 

...  A  separate  enumeration  of  mulattoes  has  been 
made  four  times,  in  the  censuses  of  1850,  1860,  1870, 
and  1890.  The  results  disclosed  the  fact  that  where 
the  proportion  of  Negroes  to  whites  was  lowest,  the 
proportion  of  mulattoes  to  total  Negroes  was  highest. 
For  example:  in  1890,  in  the  South  Central  States  of 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  the  mulattoes  were 
but  14  per  cent  of  the  total  Negro  population.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  were  32.7  per  cent  in  the  New  Eng 
land  group.  Expressed  differently,  of  all  the  so-called 
"Negroes"  whom  a  white  man  would  see  in  Mississippi, 
only  11.5  per  cent  would  be  of  the  mulatto  type,  while 
of  all  those  observed  in  Massachusetts  36.3  were  mu 
lattoes.  In  Maine  57.4  per  cent  were  mulattoes,  and 
in  Michigan  they  were  53.8  per  cent;  while  in  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina  they  were  respectively  9.9  per  cent 
and  9.7  per  cent.  .  .  . 

The  proportion  of  mulattoes  is  higher  in  the  cities  than 
in  the  rural  districts.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the 
Southern  States.  In  the  cities  of  the  Border  States  the 
percentage  of  mulattoes  is  still  noticeably  higher  than  it 
is  in  the  general  population  of  the  states  though  the  dif 
ference  is  not  so  marked  as  in  the  distinctly  Southern 
States.  In  the  Northern  group  of  states  the  per  cent  of 
mulattoes  is  enormously  higher  in  both  the  cities  and  the 
general  population  of  the  states,  and  the  difference  between 
the  two  is  less  noticeable  though  the  difference  still  exists.59 

The  data  available  seem  to  show  that  intermixture  of 
the  races  began  with  the  first  coming  of  the  Negro  to  the 

BSA.  F.  Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  pp.  40-41. 

cu  Unfortunately  there  seems  to  be  no  figures  upon  which  a  quantita 
tive  statement  can  be  based.  The  census  gives  the  proportion  of  mu 
lattoes  to  Negroes  in  the  cities  of  over  5,000  inhabitants.  It  also  gives 


Amount  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     125 

English  colonies.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  phenomenon  in 
no  way  characteristic  of  any  particular  section  of  the  coun 
try.  Mulattoes  appeared  in  all  of  the  colonies  and  the  in 
crease  seems  to  have  been  rapid  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  colonial  period.  With  the  decline  of  the  slave  system 
in  the  North  and  the  consequent  freeing  of  large  numbers 
of  Negroes,  the  mulatto  population  correspondingly  in 
creased  and  its  growth  has  continued  to  be  rapid.  With 
the  firmer  establishment  of  the  slave  system  in  the  South, 
the  relative  amount  of  racial  intermixture  probably  de- 

the  proportion  of  mulattoes  in  the  general  population  of  the  states.  For 
example: 

State  and  city  Per  cent  of  mulatto 

Georgia  17.3 

Atlanta  32.4 

Louisiana  21.4 

New  Orleans  34.1 

South  Carolina  16.1 

Charleston  23.6 

Kentucky  25.2 

Louisville  36.6 

Missouri  28.4 

St.  Louis  34.0 

Virginia  33.2 

Richmond  39.9 

New  York  22.8 

New  York  City  24.9 

Illinois  33.8 

Chicago  41.6 

Massachusetts  36.7 

Boston  34.3 

This  is  a  comparison  of  the  chief  city  in  the  state  with  the  Negro 
population  of  the  state  as  a  whole.  Were  it  possible  to  separate  the 
urban  from  the  rural  regions  the  differences  shown  here  would  be  enor 
mously  increased.  It  would  probably  be  found  that  the  mulatto  popu 
lation  is  exclusively  or  almost  exclusively  urban  and  that  the  rural  popu 
lation  with  rare  exceptions  is  black."  United  States  Census,  1910,  Pop 
ulation,  Vol.  1,  Part  1,  pp.  159,  230. 


126  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

creased  greatly.  Since  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  the 
number  of  mulattoes,  especially  in  the  former  slave  states, 
has  increased  rapidly.  The  decades  from  1890  to  1910  show 
an  enormous  increase  in  the  number  of  mixed-blood  individ 
uals.  The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  has  been  greater 
in  the  North  than  in  the  South,  at  all  periods  for  which  the 
facts  are  known.  The  present  forces  operating  tend  to  de 
crease  this  difference.  At  all  periods,  the  mulatto  formed 
a  larger  per  cent  of  the  Negro  population  of  the  towns  and 
cities  than  of  the  rural  population.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  at  the  present  time  in  the  southern  section  of  the 
country  but  is  not  untrue  of  any  region.  If  the  facts  could 
be  known  the  mulatto  would  probably  be  found  to  be  al 
most  an  exclusively  urban  phenomenon. 

The  nature  of  the  racial  intermixture  and  the  forces  oper 
ating  to  produce  the  observed  conditions  are  considered  in 
the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VI 


NATURE    OF    RACE   INTERMIXTURE   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 


Intermarriage 

IN  many  of  the  Negroes  brought  as  slaves  to  America, 
there  was  already  some  infiltration  of  Caucasian  blood. 
The  great  majority,  well  above  fifty  per  cent,  came  from  the 
West  Coast.  A  few  came  from  the  Congo  and  other  re 
gions  toward  the  interior;  a  few  were  Hottentots  and  Bush 
men  from  the  southern  part  of  Africa.  These  latter,  how 
ever,  like  the  Pygmies  of  the  interior,  were  mostly  of  a 
physical  type  too  low  to  serve  the  purposes  of  slave  labor. 
In  general  the  higher  Negroes  were  not  taken.1  It  has  been 
estimated  that  possibly  one  per  cent  of  the  Negroes  im 
ported  were  able  to  speak  an  Arabic  dialect.  Possibly  fifty 
per  cent  had  some  trace  of  a  previous  intermixture  with  a 
white  race.  But  of  all  the  Negroes  brought  the  Guinea 
Negroes  were  the  purest  and  they  constituted  above  half 
of  the  total  importations. 

1  Edward  Wiimot  Blyden,  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  Negro  race, 
maintains  the  thesis  that  white  intermixture  "has  been  the  salvation  of 
the  Negro  in  the  New  World,  for  the  black  man  who  was  weak  enough 
to  be  caught  and  shipped  away  as  a  slave  was  naturally  inferior  in  mind 
and  body  to  the  black  man  who  possessed  ingenuity  enough  to  escape 
from  the  toils  of  slavery  and  remain  at  home  as  a  slave  hunter."  Quoted 
from  The  Crisis,  Sept.  '13,  pp.  229-30.  See,  also,  G.  W.  Williams,  His 
tory  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  2,  pp.  544-45,  for  a  variation 
<  of  Blyden's  thesis. 

127 


128  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Further  crossing  began  as  soon  as  the  Negroes  landed  on 
American  soil,  if,  indeed,  it  did  not  begin  before  the  Negroes 
were  landed.2  The  race  never  has  shown  any  hesitancy 
about  crossing  with  other  races  in  any  time  or  country. 
Their  women  have  mixed  v/ith  every  race  and  people  with 
whom  they  have  come  in  contact  in  the  ancient,  as  in  the 
modern  world.  The  scarcity  of  white  women  all  through 
the  Colonial  period  doubtless  was  an  immense  factor  tend 
ing  to  overcome  any  hesitancy  the  whites  may  have  had  to 
ward  sexual  association  with  the  members  of  a  strange  race.3 
This  mixture,  as  we  have  seen,  has  increased  as  the  race  has 
gained  the  rudiments  of  civilization  and  come  to  a  better 
appreciation  of  Western  culture. 

While  the  crossing  of  the  Negro  and  the  white  races  in 
America  has  for  the  most  part  not  been  within  the  bounds 
of  conventional  marriage,  some  small  part  of  the  actual 
intermixture  has  received  the  sanction  of  law  and  social  tol 
erance. 

In  the  colonies,  the  marriage  of  Negroes  with  white  per 
sons  was  considered  highly  undesirable  and  from  an  early 
date  was  usually  prohibited  by  severe  laws.4  The  public 
disapproval  seems  generally  to  have  got  itself  enacted  into 
legal  prohibitions  as  a  result  of  the  first  unions  of  the  kind 

3  "Indeed,  in  those  early  days  many  a  negress  was  landed  upon  our 
shores  by  her  captors  already  pregnant  by  one  of  the  demoniac  crew 
that  made  up  the  company  of  the  slave  ship  that  brought  her  over." 
R.  W.  Shufeldt,  The  Negro:  A  Menace  to  American  Civilization,  p.  80. 

"The  first  mulatto  children  were  born  oif  the  coast  of  Africa,  and 
their  fathers  were  the  first  white  men  the  black  princesses  of  that  coun 
try  ever  saw.  .  .  ."  Anonymous,  The  Independent,  Vol.  54,  p.  2226. 

3  J.  H.  Van  Evrie,  White  Supremacy  and  Negro  Subordination,  p.  153. 

4  "In  the  French,  English  and  Dutch  colonies,  the  laws,  or  public  opin 
ion,  so  prevents  marriages  between  individuals  of  different  colors,  that 
those  who  would   contract  them,  would   be  considered  as   degraded   by 
their  alliance,  .  .  ."     H.  Gregoire,  Literature  of  Negroes,  p.  66. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     129 

that  took  place.5  The  first  act  of  Maryland  establishing 
slavery,  passed  in  1663,  forbade  the  practice  of  intermar 
riage  and,  from  its  wording,  seems  to  show  that  such  mar 
riages  had  already  taken  place.6  North  Carolina  in  1715 
passed  an  act  carrying  a  heavy  penalty  on  any  white  man 
or  woman  who  should  marry  a  Negro,  mulatto,  or  Indian 
and  also  provided  a  heavy  penalty  on  any  minister  who 
should  officiate  at  such  a  marriage.7  Within  two  years  of 
the  passing  of  the  act,  two  persons,  were  indicted  for  per 
forming  such  a  marriage  ceremony.8  A  further  law  in  1723 
recites  that  certain  free  Negroes,  mulattoes,  and  other  per 
sons  of  mixed  blood  had  moved  into  the  colony  and,  in  de 
fiance  of  the  laws  to  the  contrary,  several  of  them  had  in 
termarried  with  the  white  inhabitants.9  Pennsylvania 
passed  a  similar  law  in  1725-1726,  partly  the  result,  ap 
parently,  of  a  clandestine  marriage  between  a  Negro  and 
a  white  woman.10 

Similar  laws  in  the  other  colonies  were  passed  at  an  early 
date  usually  as  a  reaction  and  a  protest  against  some  mixed 
marriage.  How  many  such  marriages  there  were,  we  have 
no  way  of  knowing;  but  that  they  were  anywhere  more  than 

5  The  law  of  Maryland,  1681,  for  example,  seems  to  have  been  called 
forth  by  the  marriage  of  "Irish  Nell,"  a  servant  of  the  Lord  Proprietor, 
who  had  married  a  slave.  It  was  to  determine  the  status  of  her  mu 
latto  children.  J.  R.  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  34,  f.  n. 

0  "And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  all  issues  of  English,  or  other  free 
born  women,  that  have  already  married  negroes,  shall  serve  the  master 
.  .  ."  Sec.  III.  Act  of  1663.  Quoted  by  Williams,  History  of  the 
Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  240.  See,  also,  Brackett,  The  Negro 
in  Maryland,  pp.  32-34. 

7  J.  S.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina, 
.pp.  58-59. 

8  Ibid.,  p.  58. 
'Ibid.,  pp.  68-69. 

ioE,  R,  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  29-31. 


130  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  rarest  exception  there  is  no  reason  to  believe.11  Then, 
as  now,  such  mixed  unions  roused  an  indignant  protest  from 
the  decent  members  of  the  community.12 

Such  intermarriages  as  did  take  place  in  these  early  days, 
seem  to  have  been  invariably  with  the  meanest  classes  of 
the  whites.13  The  marriages  were  contrary  to  law  and  to 
public  sentiment,  and  were  entered  into  at  the  price  of  social 
ostracism  and  legal  punishment.  Williams,14  speaking  of 
the  first  statute  establishing  slavery  in  Maryland,  says: 

Section  two  was  called  into  being  on  account  of 
the  intermarriage  of  white  women  and  slaves.  Many 
of  these  women  had  been  indentured  as  servants  to  pay 
their  passage  to  this  country,  some  had  been  sent  as 
convicts,  while  still  others  had  been  apprenticed  for  a 
term  of  years.  Some  of  them,  however,  were  very  wor 
thy  persons.  .  .  . 

Brackett 15  also  speaks  of  marriages  between  these  Eng 
lish  serving-women  and  the  slaves  or  .free  Negroes.  Tur 
ner  16  speaks  of  two  mixed  marriages  in  Pittsburgh  in  1788. 
In  one  case,  the  couple  was  said  to  occupy  a  respectable 

11 E.  R.  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  194-95.  Bassett, 
Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina,  pp.  69,  58-59. 

"  See,  for  e.g.,  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  195-96.  Also, 
E.  I.  McCormac,  White  Servitude  in  Maryland,  p.  67. 

18  In  North  Carolina  in  1727  "a  white  woman  was  indicted  in  the  Gen 
eral  Court  because  she  had  left  her  husband  and  was  cohabiting  witli  a 
Negro  slave."  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North 
Carolina,  p.  58.  "Among  the  servants  imported  into  the  colony,  there 
were  often  women  of  a  very  low  type,  who  during  their  term  of  servitude 
intermarried  with  negro  slaves."  McCormac,  White  Servitude  in  Mary 
land,  p.  67. 

"History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  240, 

18  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  196. 

18  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  194. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  Stat'es     131 

position.17  Branagan18  declares  that  such  marriages  were 
common  in  Philadelphia  after  the  repeal  in  1780  of  the  laws 
applying  to  the  Negro.  The  grandmother  of  Benjamin 
Banneker  19  was  an  English  felon  transported  to  the  colony 
of  Delaware.20  tPhere  seems  to  be  absolutely  no  evidence 
of  any  marriages  of  a  mixed  sort  in  which  the  white  con 
tracting  party  was  not  of  the  lowest  and  usually  of  a  vicious 
class._j 

UjBut  whatever  little  intermarriage  may  have  taken  place 
between  the  Negroes  and  the  servant  class  of  whites  in  early 
colonial  times,  it  decreased  to  an  almost  absolute  zero  as 
the  status  of  the  Negro  became  fixed  and  better  understood. 
The  spirit  of  fellowship  that  at  first  existed  between  the 
slaves  and  the  indentured  servants,  imported  criminals,  pau 
pers,  and  prostitutes  gradually  gave  place  to  the  feeling 
of  bitter  hatredjhat,  throughout  the  days  of  slavery,  char 
acterized  the  relations  of  the  "poor  whites"  and  the  Ne- 

17  "Cette  fainille  est  une  des  plus  respectables  de  cette  ville."     Brissat 
de  Warville,  Nouveau  Voyage,  pp.  33,  34.    Quoted  by  Turner,  The  Negro 
in  Pennsylvania,  p.  195,  f.  n. 

18  "I  solemnly  declare,  I  have  seen  more'  white  women  married  to,  and 
deluded  through  the  arts  of  seduction  by  negroes  in  one  year  in  Phila 
delphia,  than  for  the  eight  years  I  was  visiting.     [In  the  West  Indies  and 
the  Southern  States.]"     "There  are  many,  very  many  blacks,  who  .  .  . 
begin  to  feel  themselves  consequential,  .  .  .  will  not  be  satisfied  unless 
they  get  white  women  for  wives,  and  are  likewise  exceedingly  imperti 
nent  to  white  persons  in  low  circumstances."     "I  know  a  black  man  who 
seduced  a  young  white  girl  .  .  .  who  soon  after  married  him,  and  died 
with  a  broken  heart;  on  her  death  he  said  he  would  not  disgrace  himself 
to  have  a  negro  wife,  and  acted  accordingly,  for  he  soon  after  married 
another  white  woman."     "There  are  perhaps  hundreds  of  white  women 
thus  fascinated  by  black  men  in  this  city,  and  there  are  thousands  of 
black  children  by  them  at  present."     Branagan,  Serious  Remonstrances, 
pp.  70-71,  73,  74,  75.     Quoted  by  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania, 
p.  195,  f.  n. 

"See  page  190  below. 

20  J.  W.  Cromwell,  The  Negro  in  American  History,  pp.  86-97. 


132  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

grocs.  In  the  slave  states,  there  was  no  intermarriage,  ex 
cept  rarely  among  the  Creoles  of  Louisiana.21  In  the  North, 
there  was  very  little.  Where  such  marriages  were  not  for 
bidden  by  law,  they  were  forbidden  by  the  decent  elements 
of  the  white  community.  Turner's  summary  of  the  situa 
tion  in  Pennsylvania  is,  in  general,  characteristic  of  the  en 
tire  non-slave  holding  parts  of  the  country.  He  says :  22 

After  a  while  a  strong  feeling  was  aroused,  so  that 
in  1821  a  petition  was  sent  to  the  Legislature,  asking 
that  mixed  marriages  be  declared  void,  and  that  it  be 
made  a  penal  act  for  a  negro  to  marry  a  white  man's 
daughter.  In  1834  such  a  marriage  provoked  a  riot 
at  Columbia;  while  in  1838  the  subject  caused  a  vehe 
ment  outburst  in  the  Constitutional  Convention  then 
assembled.  Three  years  later  a  bill  to  prevent  inter 
marriage  was  passed  in  the  House,  but  lost  in  the  Sen 
ate.  From  time  to  time  thereafter  petitions  were  sent 
to  the  Legislature,  but  no  action  was  taken;  the  ob 
noxious  marriages  continuing  to  be  reported,  and  even 
being  encouraged  by  some  extreme  advocates  of  race 
equality.  Nevertheless  what  the  law  left  undone  was 
largely  accomplished  by  public  sentiment  and  private 
action.  As  time  went  on  marriages  of  white  people 
with  negroes  came  to  be  considered  increasingly  odious, 
and  so  became  far  less  frequent.  When  a  case  occurred, 
it  was  usually  followed  by  swift  action  and  dire  ven 
geance.  The  fact  that  a  white  man  was  living  with  a 
negro  wife  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  terrible  riot  in 
Philadelphia  in  1849. 

In  the  period  just  preceding  the  Civil  War,  the  emotional 
tension  in  the  North  and  the  preaching  of  amalgamation  of 

21 F.  L.  Olmsted,  A  Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  p.  636, 
quotes  a  resident  as  saying  that  ".  .  .  White  men,  sometimes,  married  a 
rich  colored  girl;  but  he  never  knew  of  a  black  man  to  marry  a  white 
girl."  Olmsted  adds:  "I  subsequently  heard  of  one  such  case." 

23  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  195-96, 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in   United  States     133 

the  races  by  Phillips  and  others  brought  about  a  few  inter 
marriages.  One  of  the  wives  23  of  Frederick  Douglass,  for 
example,  was  a  white  woman.  But  the  total  number  of  such 
unions  was  so  small  as  to  be  negligible. 

I  Lin  the  period  since  the  Civil  War,  mixed  marriages  have 
been  very  infrequent,  j  Baker  24  gives  one  hundred  and  sev 
enty-one  as  the  number  of  mixed  marriages  in  Boston  for 
the  six-year  period  ending  in  1905.  This  is  about  the  same 
average  that  has  obtained  for  half  a  century.25  Hoffman  26 
found  sixty-five  such  marriages  to  have  taken  place  in 
Connecticut  in  the  eleven-year  period  ending  in  1893.  For 
the  same  period  fifty-eight  such  marriages  were  reported 
from  Rhode  Island.  In  Michigan,  for  the  twenty-year  period 
ending  in  1893,  he  found  a  total  of  one  hundred  and  eleven 
mixed  marriages.27  In  Bermuda  for  the  twelve-year  period 

MThe  second. 

14  Ray  Stannard  Baker,  Following  the  Color  Line,  p.  172. 

*  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  mixed  marriages  by  five 
year  periods  from  1855  to  1887. 

Total  Average  per  year 

1855—59  50  10 

1862—66  45  9 

1867—71  88  17.6 

1873—77  172  34.4 

1878—82  121  24.2 

1883—87  124  24.8 

1890  24  24 

WF.  L.  Hoffman,  Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  pp.  199  ff. 

*  Hoffman  seems  to  have  included  in  his  figures  cases  of  open  con 
cubinage  as  well  as  conventional  and  lawful  unions.     According  to  the 
statement  presented  to  the  Michigan  Legislature  in   1915  less  than  40 
mixed  marriages  have  been  legalized  in  the  state  in  the  past  30  ye'ars. 
The  committee  however  were  endeavoring  to  make  a  case  against  the 
proposed  law  to  prohibit  intermarriage  and  gave  expression  to  a  num 
ber  of  errors  of  fact.     Hoffman  is  probably  the  better  authority.     Re 
port    of   Committee   on   Equitable    Legislation,    "Treatise   on    Proposed 
Changes  in  the  Law  of  Marriage." 


134  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

from  1872  to  1883,  there  were  one  hundred  and  nine  mixed 
marriages ;  for  the  following  twelve-year  period  from  1884 
to  1895,  there  were  but  fifty-eight. 

In  twenty-eight  states  the  intermarriage  of  the  races  is 
forbidden  by  law,28  in  most  cases  under  severe  penalty.29 
In  other  states,  the  sentiment  against  such  unions  is  suffi 
ciently  strong  to  make  the  question  a  regular  subject. of 
legislative  debate.30  That  they  are  not  forbidden  in  all  the 
states  is  not  that  they  are  approved,  but  that  the  number 
of  Negroes  is  so  small  and  the  number  of  such  unions  so 
few,  that  they  constitute  no  menace  sufficient  to  force  pro 
tective  legislative  enactment.  The  Massachusetts  attitude 
as  described  by  Stone,  is  fairly  typical  of  the  more  northern 
states  where  the  Negro  is  not  a  grave  and  immediate  prob 
lem.31 

For  a  period  of  138  years  Massachusetts  prohibited 
intermarriage  between  whites  and  Negroes  or  mulat- 
toes.  The  statute  of  Queen  Anne  of  1705  may  be  said 
originally  to  have  been  tinctured  by  the  religious  ob 
jection  to  a  union  between  Christians  and  pagans.  But 
it  was  several  times  reenacted  long  after  such  influences 
had  ceased  to  exist.  It  was  finally  repealed  in  1843. 
By  such  action  Massachusetts  did  not  by  any  means 
intend  to  declare  in  favour  of  racial  intermarriage. 
The  real  significance  of  the  repeal  was  that,  whether 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  numerical  insignifi 
cance  of  the  Negro  population  had  finally  brought  pos 
sibly  a  majority  of  the  whites  to  a  point  from  which 
they  were  able  to  view  with  entire  indifference  any  pos- 

28  The  constitutions  of  six  of  the  states  prohibit  such  marriages. 

39  E.  A.  Jenks,  "The  Legal  Status  of  Negro-White  Amalgamation  in 
the  United  States."  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  21,  pp.  666-78. 

soln  1913  bills  aimed  at  prohibiting  Negro-white  intermarriages  were 
introduced  in  ten  of  the  twenty  states  then  permitting  such  unions. 
Jenks,  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  21,  p.  666. 

31  A,  F.  Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  pp.  60-61, 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     135 

sible  consequences  of  a  formal  reversal  of  the  ancient 
policy  of  the  state. 

The  large  majority  of  the  mixed  marriages  are  of  Negro 
or  mulatto  men  and  white  women.  In  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
eight  of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-one  cases  reported  by 
Baker,  the  groom  was  a  Negro  and  the  woman  white.32  In 
thirteen  cases  the  groom  was  a  white  man.  Of  the  fifty- 
eight  mixed  marriages  in  Rhode  Island  fifty-one  were  white 
females  and  seven  were  white  males.  Of  the  one  hundred  and 
eleven  cases  in  Michigan  ninety-three  were  white  women  and 
eighteen  were  white  men.33  34  Stone 35  comments  on  the 
Boston  situation  as  follows : 

...  As  a  matter  of  fact,  for  the  past  five  years,  of 
all  the  Negro  marriages  in  Massachusetts,  an  average 
of  about  10  per  cent  have  been  mixed.  Moreover,  in 
these  cases  the  white  party  is  a  woman,  very  infre 
quently  a  man.  Of  the  52  mixed  marriages  in  37  towns 
and  cities  of  the  state  in  1900,  43  were  between  white 
women  and  Negro  men.  .  .  . 

During  the  five  years  from  1900  to  1904  there  were 
143  marriages  between  Negroes  and  whites  in  the  city 

Groom  Negro  Groom  white  Total  mixed 

Year                Bride  white  Bride  Negro  marriages 

1900  32  3  35 

1901  30  1  31 

1902  25  4  29 

1903  27  2  29 

1904  27  1  28 

1905  17  2  19 
Baker,  Following  the  Color  Line,  p.  172. 

83  Hoffman,  Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  p.  119. 

84  It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  that  of  the  18  white  men 
married  to  Negroes  6  married  black  females  and  12  mulatto  females; 
of  the  93  white  women  married  to  Negroes  47  were  married  to  black 
males  and  46  to  mulatto  males. 

"Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  pp.  62-63. 


136  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

of  Boston,  and  907  in  which  both  parties  were  Negroes. 
In  other  words,  with  a  Negro  population  of  11,591 
there  were  1,050  marriages.  Of  these,  143,  or  13.6 
per  cent,  if  my  calculation  is  correct,  married  white 
persons.  Of  these  mixed  marriages  133  were  cases  of 
white  women  marrying  Negro  men,  while  only  10  white 
men  married  Negro  women.  With  the  white  women 
in  this  instance  representing  93  per  cent  of  her  race's 
participation  in  such  alliances,  it  is  safe  to  dogmatize 
as  to  the  processes  of  race  intermixture.  And  my  in 
vestigations  thus  far  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  same 
conditions  exist  in  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
York. 

The  mixed  marriages  as  a  rule  are  of  the  lower  classes 
fof  the  whites.  The  woman  in  most  of  the  unions  are  recent 
immigrants  and  often,  no  doubt,  contract  the  alliances  with 
out  realizing  the  social  consequences.36  Hoffman  made  a 
careful  investigation  of  thirty-seven  such  mixed  unions.87 
Eight  were  of  white  men  living  with  Negro  women,  twenty- 
nine  of  white  women  living  with  Negro  men. 

Of  the  eight  white  men,  four  were  legally  married  and 
four  were  not.  Three  of  the  number  were  criminals  or  crim 
inal  suspects.  The  others  were  outcasts :  one  was  a  saloon 
keeper,  one  had  deserted  a  white  wife  and  family,  two  others 
were  of  good  families  but  were  themselves  of  bad  reputa 
tion. 

Of  the  twenty-nine  white  women,  nineteen  were  lawfully 
married  to  their  Negro  husbands,  while  ten  were  living  in 

36 ".  .  .  The  few  white  women  who  have  given  birth  to  mulattoes  have 
always  been  regarded  as  monsters;  and  without  exception,  they  have 
belonged  to  the  most  impoverished  and  degraded  caste  of  whites,  by  whom 
they  are  scrupulously  avoided  as  creatures  who  have  sunk  to  the  level  of 
the  beasts  of  the  field."  P.  A.  Bruce,  The  Plantation  Negro  as  a  Free 
man,  p.  55. 

87  Hoifman,  Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  pp.  204-06. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     137 

open  concubinage.  Five  of  these  latter  were  of  foreign 
birth.  Eight  of  the  number  were  prostitutes,38  one  was  in 
sane,  and  one  was  the  daughter  of  respectable  parents.  Of 
the  nineteen  who  were  lawfully  married,  four  were  prosti 
tutes,  two  were  guilty  of  bigamy,  four  were  either  divorced 
or  had  deserted  husbands,  five  were  apparently  of  respect 
able  parentage  and  contented  with  their  husbands.  Of  the 
four  others,  Hoffman  was  able  to  obtain  no  information. 

Of  the  twenty-jiine  Negro  men,  one  was  an  industrious 
barber  of  good  character,  five  were  of  fair  repute,  nine 
were  idlers,  loafers,  or  drunkards,  and  eleven  were  proved 
criminal.  The  character  of  the  remaining  three  was  not 
determined. 

Hoffman  concludes  this  phase  of  his  study  as  follows :  39 

Comment  on  these  cases  is  hardly  necessary.  They' 
tend  to  prove  that  as  a  rule  neither  good  white  men 
nor  good  white  women  marry  colored  persons,  and  that 
good  colored  men  and  women  do  not  marry  white  per 
sons.  The  number  of  cases  is  so  small,  however,  that 
a  definite  conclusion  as  to  the  character  of  persons 
intermarrying  is  hardly  warranted.  However,  it  would 
seem  that  if  such  marriages  were  a  success,  even  to  a 
limited  extent,  some  evidence  would  be  found  in  a  col 
lection  of  thirty-six  cases.  It  is  my  own  opinion, 
based  on  personal  observation  in  the  cities  of  the  South, 
that  the  individuals  of  both  races  who  intermarry  or 
live  in  concubinage  are  vastly  inferior  to  the  average 
types  of  the  white  and  colored  races  in  the  United 
States;  also,  that  the  class  of  white  men  who  have  in 
tercourse  with  colored  women  are,  as  a  rule,  of  an  in 
ferior  type. 

38  It  is  perhaps  not  generally  understood  to  what  extent  sexually  sa 
tiated  prostitutes  seek  Negro  men  in  their  search  for  new  stimulation, 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  many  debauched  white  men. 

89  Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  p.  206. 


138  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  great  majority  of  the  mixed  marriages  occur  in  the 
larger  cities.  Of  the  fifty-eight  reported  from  Rhode  Island, 
for  example,  fifty-two  were  from  Providence.40 

These  mixed  marriages  are  very  frequently  marriages  of 
mulattoes,  usually  very  light-colored  mulattoes,  with  the 
poorer  and  lower  class  of  white  women.  Not  infrequently, 
it  would  seem  these  unions  take  place  without  the  girl  real 
izing  that  she  is  marrying  a  Negro.  Cases  where  such  facts 
are  made  the  grounds  for  divorce  proceedings,  appear  from 
time  to  time  in  the  daily  press.  So  uniform  is  it  that  the 
groom  is  of  some  importance  and  the  bride  a  woman  of  the 
lower  class,  that  some  predict  a  final  solution  of  the  prob 
lem  of  the  Negro  in  America  by  a  fusion  of  the  upper  class 
Negroes  with  the  lower  class  whites.41 

For  this  reason  the  idea,  unpopular,  to  be  sure,  but 
still  indicated  by  the  facts,  that  the  races  in  America 
are  amalgamating  is  not  unwelcome  to  many  thinkers. 

That  simply  goes  to  show  that  we  are  now  part  way 
along  in  the  process,  which  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
will  be  accomplished  in  time.  The  black  race  is  to  be 
absorbed. 

In  fact,  the  thing  will  not  be  so  repellant  in  a  few 
hundred  years  as  it  is  now.  As  it  is,  those  who  say  the 
relation  between  whites  and  blacks  is  a  symptom  of 
mental  defect  on  the  part  of  the  whites  fail  entirely 
to  consider  that  times  without  number  the  scions  of  our 
best  southern  families  have  shown  signs  of  such  degen 
eracy. 

Is  it  not  more  reasonable  to  expect  that  as  time 
goes  on  the  more  cultured  blacks  will  more  or  less  nat 
urally  intermingle  with  the  least  cultured  whites  in  the 

40  Hoffman,  Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  p.  199. 

41  G.  B.  Foster,  as  quoted  in  the  daily  press.    See,  for  e.g.,  the  Chicago 
Tribune,  11-9-1914.     See,  also,  DuBois,  note  134,  p.  164  below. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     139 

south  until  eventually  the  whole  process  will  have  been 
completed  and  our  race  will  have  absorbed  the  other? 
Surely,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  that  condi 
tion  will  result. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  evident  that  the  origin  of  the 
mulatto  group  and  its  subsequent  growth  have  been  brought 
about,  only  in  a  very  minor  degree,  through  the  conven 
tional  marriage  relation.  Such  marriages  as  do  take  place 
are  almost  exclusively  Northern  Negroes,  frequently  light- 
colored  mulattoes,  with  women  of  the  lower  classes  and  espe 
cially  with  European  immigrant  girls.42  The  desire  of  the 
Negro  in  this  respect  is,  when  he  becomes  wealthy,  fre 
quently  taken  advantage  of  by  white  adventuresses  of  ques 
tionable  virtue.  A  certain  prize  fighter  of  national  reputa 
tion  is  a  case  in  point.43 

The  Concubinage  of  Colored  Women  by  White  Men 

Another  source  of  the  increase  of  the  mulatto  group  has 
been  the  concubinage  of  colored  women  by  white  men.  This 
form  of  sex  relation  was  fairly  common  in  certain  sections 
during  the  period  of  slavery.  The  relation,  where  it  existed, 
approached  often  more  nearly  a  form  of  polygamy  than 
that  of  an  indiscriminate  sex  relation.  To  what  extent  the 
relationship  existed  during  the  slavery  days  or  even  at  the 
present  time,  it  is  not  possible  to  say.  The  custom  varied 
in  different  sections  and  in  the  same  section  at  different 

42 ".  .  .  In  the  majority  of  intermarriages  the  white  women  belong  to 
the  lower  walks  of  life.  They  are  German,  Irish,  or  other  foreign  women, 
respectable,  but  ignorant.  .  .  ."  Baker,  Following  the  Color  Line,  p.  172. 

43  There  is  here  no  intention  to  put  in  question  the  sincere  devotion  and 
pure  romantic  love  that  doubtless  led  to  the  marriage  unions  between 
such  men  as  Frederick  Douglass,  President  Scarborough  of  Wilberforce, 
Ira  Aldridge,  the  actor,  and  other  prominent  mulattoes  and  their  white 
wives.  See  note  4,  p.  316. 


140  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

times.  No  doubt  there  were  isolated  instances  of  the  sort 
everywhere,  throughout  the  whole  period  that  the  Negro 
has  been  in  the  country.  That  it  was  a  uniform  custom  of 
the  slave-owning  class,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe:  that  it 
was  common  in  certain  regions,  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt.44 

The  form  of  this  sex  relation  was  exclusively  of  white  men 
and  Negro  women.  In  general,  it  seems  not  to  have  been  a 
promiscuous  relation  between  the  master  class  and  the  fe 
male  slaves,  but  a  relation  between  some  favorite  slave  girl 
and  a  young  man  of  the  family.45  It  was  not  in  any  sense 
a  forced  relation  on  the  part  of  the  Negress;  on  the  con 
trary,  it  was  a  relation  to  which  the  girl  of  the  upper  classes 
of  the  Negroes  aspired  as  the  highest  honor  and  privilege 
which  she  could  attain.  To  the  girl  it  was,  in  the  great  ma 
jority  of  cases,  a  matter  of  being  honored  by  a  white  man.46 

When  a  child  or  children  resulted  from  the  association, 
they  not  infrequently  received  their  freedom — generally 
along  with  that  of  the  mother — and  occasionally,  at  least, 
received  an  education  and  a  start  in  life.  To  escape  the 
restrictions  placed  upon  the  free  Negro  in  many  of  the 
Southern  States,  these  natural  children,  and  other  faithful 
slaves  whom  the  master  might  wish  to  free,  were  frequently 
taken  into  free  territory  and  there  given  their  freedom.47 

44  See  pages  92-93  above. 
"See  note  25,  p.  1T6  below. 

46  J.  S.  Bassett  quotes  a  physician  whom  he  considers  trustworthy  and 
who  was  raised  on  a  rice  plantation  near  Wilmington,  North  Carolina, 
as  saying  that  ".  .  .  Among  themselves  the  slaves  were  immoral,  but, 
generally  speaking,  there  were  no  illicit  relations  between  them  and  the 
white  men.     The  white  boys  were  sometimes  intimate  with  the  house 
maids.  .  .  ."     Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  86. 

47  "At  this  time   [about  1850]   says  Mr.  Brown:     'Cincinnati  was  full 
of  women,  without  husbands,  and  their  children.     These  were  sent  by 
the  planters  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  some  from  Tennessee,  who 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     141 

The  highest  development  of  the  system  of  concubinage 
seems  not  to  have  been  between  the  slave-holding  families 
and  their  slaves,  but  between  the  free  mulatto  women  and 
the  non-slave-holding  men.  In  its  fullest  development,  the 
system  flourished  where  there  were  the  largest  number  of 
free  Negro  women  of  mixed  ancestry  and  of  some  degree 
of  culture  and  refinement.  In  Charleston,  in  Mobile,  and 
especially  in  New  Orleans,  the  system  reached  a  stage  little 
short  of  a  socially  sanctioned  institution.  Olmsted's  de 
scription  of  the  system  in  New  Orleans  shortly  before  the 
war  gives  a  picture  of  concubinage  at  its  point  of  highest 
development.48 

I  refer  to  a  class  composed  of  the  illegitimate  off 
spring  of  white  men  and  colored  women  (mulattos  or 
quadroons),  who,  from  habits  of  early  life,  the  advan 
tages  of  education,  and  the  use  of  wealth,  are  too  much 
superior  to  the  negroes,  in  general,  to  associate  with 
them,  and  are  not  allowed  by  law,  or  the  popular  prej 
udice,  to  marry  white  people.     The  girls  are  frequently 
sent  to  Paris  to  be  educated,  and  are  very  accomplished. 
They   are   generally   pretty,   and    often   handsome.      I 
have  rarely,  if  ever,  met  more  beautiful  women,  than 
one  or  two  of  them,  that  I  saw  by  chance,  in  the  streets, 
had  got  fortunes  and  had  found  that  white  women  could  live  in  those 
states,  and  in  consequence,  they  had  sent  their  slave  wives  and  children 
to  Cincinnati  and  set  them  free.'"     Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Story 
of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  p.  227.    The  Mr.  Brown  quoted  was  a  free  Negro 
or  mulatto.    This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  scarcity  of  white  women 
was  the  determining  factor  in  the  intermixture.     Wilberforce,  Ohio,  is 
said  to  have  a  settlement  of  this  sort.     "The  thing  that  gives  a  peculiar 
and  interesting  character  to  many  of  these  ante-bellum   Negro  settle 
ments  is  that  they  were  made  by  Southern  slave-holders  who  desired  to 
free  their  slaves  and  were  not  able  to  do  so  under  the  restrictions  that 
were  imposed  upon  emancipation  in  the  Southern  states.     Many  of  the 
colored  people  in  these  settlements  were  the  natural  children  of  their 
master.  .  .  ."     Ibid.,  Vol.  1,  pp.  234-35. 
"  A  Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  pp.  594-97. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

They  are  much  better  formed,  and  have  a  much  more 
graceful  and  elegant  carriage  than  Americans  in  gen 
eral,  while  they  seem  to  have  commonly  inherited  or 
acquired  much  of  the  taste  and  skill,  in  the  selection 
and  arrangement,  and  the  way  of  wearing  dresses  and 
ornaments,  that  is  the  especial  distinction  of  the  women 
of  Paris.  Their  beauty  and  attractiveness  being  their 
fortune,  they  cultivate  and  cherish  with  diligence  every 
charm  or  accomplishment  they  are  possessed  of. 

Of  course,  men  are  attracted  by  them,  associate  with 
them,  are  captivated,  and  become  attached  to  them, 
and,  not  being  able  to  marry  them  legally,  and  with 
the  usual  forms  and  securities  for  constancy,  make 
such  arrangements  "as  can  be  agreed  upon."  When  a 
man  makes  a  declaration  of  love  to  a  girl  of  this  class, 
she  will  admit  or  deny,  as  the  case  may  be,  her  happi 
ness  in  receiving  it ;  but,  supposing  she  is  favorably 
disposed,  she  will  usually  refer  the  applicant  to  her 
mother.  The  mother  inquires,  like  a  Countess  of  Kew, 
into  the  circumstances  of  the  suitor;  ascertains 
whether  he  is  able  to  maintain  a  family,  and,  if  satis 
fied  with  him,  in  these  and  other  respects,  requires  from 
him  security  that  he  will  support  her  daughter  in  a 
style  suitable  to  the  habits  she  has  been  bred  to,  and 
that,  if  he  should  ever  leave  her,  he  will  give  her  a  cer 
tain  sum  for  her  future  support,  and  a  certain  addi 
tional  sum  for  each  of  the  children  she  shall  then  have. 

The  wealth,  thus  secured,  will,  of  course,  vary — 
as  in  society  with  higher  assumptions  of  morality — 
with  the  value  of  the  lady  in  the  market ;  that  is,  with 
her  attractiveness,  and  the  number  and  value  of  other 
suitors  she  may  have,  or  may  reasonably  expect.  Of 
course,  I  do  not  mean  that  love  has  nothing  at  all  to 
do  with  it ;  but  love  is  sedulously  restrained,  and  held 
firmly  in  hand,  until  the  road  of  competency  is  seen  to 
be  clear,  with  less  humbug  than  our  English  custom 
requires  about  it.  Everything  being  satisfactorily  ar 
ranged,  a  tenement  in  a  certain  quarter  of  the  town  is 
usually  hired,  and  the  couple  move  into  it  and  go  to 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     143 

housekeeping — living  as  if  they  were  married.  The 
woman  is  not,  of  course,  to  be  wholly  deprived  of  the 
society  of  others — her  former  acquaintances  are*  con 
tinued,  and  she  sustains  her  relations  as  daughter,  sis 
ter,  and  friend.  Of  course,  too,  her  husband  (she  calls 
him  so — why  shouldn't  she?)  will  be  likely  to  continue, 
also,  more  or  less  in,  and  form  a  part  of,  this  kind  of 
society.  There  are  parties  and  balls — bals  masques — 
and  all  the  movements  and  customs  of  other  fashionable 
society,  which  they  can  enjoy  in  it,  if  they  wish.  The 
women  of  this  sort  are  represented  to  be  exceedingly  af 
fectionate  in  disposition,  and  constant  beyond  re 
proach. 

During  all  the  time  a  man  sustains  this  relation,  he 
will  commonly  be  moving,  also,  in  reputable  society  on 
the  other  side  of  the  town;  not  improbably,  eventually 
he  marries,  and  has  a  family  establishment  elsewhere. 
Before  doing  this,  he  may  separate  from  his  placee  (so 
she  is  termed).  If  so,  he  pays  her  according  to  agree 
ment,  and  as  much  more,  perhaps,  as  his  affection  for 
her,  or  his  sense  of  the  cruelty  of  the  proceeding,  may 
lead  him  to ;  and  she  has  the  world  before  her  again, 
in  the  position  of  a  widow.  Many  men  continue,  for 
a  long  time,  to  support  both  establishments — partic 
ularly,  if  their  legal  marriage  is  one  de  convenance. 
But  many  others  form  so  strong  attachments,  that  the 
relation  is  never  discontinued,  but  becomes,  indeed,  that 
of  marriage,  except  that  it  is  not  legalized  or  solem 
nized.  These  men  leave  their  estate,  at  death,  to  their 
children,  to  whom  they  may  have  previously  given  every 
advantage  of  education  they  could  command.  What 
becomes  of  the  boys,  I  am  not  informed;  the  girls, 
sometimes,  are  removed  to  other  countries,  where  their 
color  does  not  prevent  their  living  reputable  lives ;  but, 
of  course,  mainly  continue  in  the  same  society  and  are 
fated  to  a  life  similar  to  that  of  their  mothers. 

The  extent  to  which  concubinage  prevails  at  the  present 
time,  it  is  not  possible  to  determine.     There  is  no  unanimity 


144  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

in  the  opinions  expressed  and  no  wide  investigation  on  the 
basis  of  which  an  estimate  can  be  made.  The  relation  shocks 
the  conventional,  middle-class  sex  ethics  of  the  community 
and  the  pronouncements  so  frequently  met  with  on  the  sub 
ject  are  seldom  anything  more  than  an  offhand  expression  of 
passion  and  prejudice.  That  the  relative  importance  of 
this  particular  form  of  race  intermixture  is  generally 
grossly  exaggerated  seems  certain,  but  how  numerous  the 
cases  of  concubinage  actually  are,  it  is  wholly  impossible 
to  say. 

Unlawful  Polygamy 

Aside  from  a  very  little  lawful  intermarriage  and  a 
larger,  but  wholly  indeterminable,  amount  of  unlawful,  sub 
surface  polygamy ;  there  is,  and  seems  always  to  have  been, 
a  much  larger  number  of  sexual  irregularities  between  the 
races  which  are  wholly  casual  in  their  nature.49  It  is  this 
casual  meeting  and  temporary  association  of  individuals,  a 
relation  which  approaches  more  nearly  a  form  of  prostitu 
tion  than  a  form  of  polygamy,  that  is  now,  and  seems  al 
ways  to  have  been,  the  characteristic  form  of  intermixture 
that  has  existed  between  the  races  in  America.  It  is  not 
confined  to  any  one  section  of  the  country  50  nor  to  any  one 

"It  is  this  third  and  numerically  more  important  element  that  is 
overlooked  by  Mr.  DuBois  when  he  asserts  that  the  mulatto  is  the  product 
of  "a  system  of  concubinage  of  colored  women  in  slavery  days,  together 
with  some  intermarriage."  See  The  Negro  American  Family,  p.  47. 
Also,  see  the  article  in  Inter-Racial  Problems,  The  Negro  and  elsewhere. 

50  The  Independent,  Vol.  55,  p.  454,  says,  speaking  editorially:  "None 
of  the  intermixture  is  the  fruit  of  marriage.  It  has  been  nearly  all 
produced  in  the  South,  and  is  all  the  fruit  of  white  fathers  and  darker 
mothers."  Here  is  exaggeration  almost  to  the  point  of  misstatement. 
It  is  not  "all  the  fruit  of  white  fathers  and  darker  mothers:"  some  of 
it  is  the  fruit  of  marriage.  It  has  been  "nearly  all  produced  in  the 
South"  only  in  the  sense  that  nearly  all  of  the  race  has  been  in  the 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     145 

social  class  in  the  community.51  It  goes  on  everywhere 
where  class  differences  exist  and  where  the  vicious  elements 
have  an  opportunity  to  associate. 

Russell  52  studying  the  free  Negroes  in  Virginia  concludes 
that  they  were  in  large  measure  the  result  of  illicit  relations 
between  the  masters  and  the  slave  women.  Turner  53  con 
cludes  his  study  of  the  matter  in  Pennsylvania  by  freeing 
the  master  class  from  the  charge  of  debauching  the  slave 
women.  Bassett  seems  to  doubt  that  the  master  class  was 
an  important  element  in  production  of  the  bastard  race. 
Speaking  of  the  laws  enacted  in  regard  to  bastardy  in  1715 
and  1741  which  provided  extra  terms  of  service  for  the  ser 
vant  who  became  a  mother  of  a  bastard  child,  he  says : 54 

It  is  also  evident  that  the  sin  of  the  servant  would 
be  an  advantage  to  the  master,  since  he  would  thereby 

South.  Relatively  the  intermixture  of  the  races  has  been  greater  in 
the  Northern  and  Border  States  than  in  the  South. 

51  The  New  York  Age,  the  best  of  the  Negro  papers,  in  an  unmannerly 
editorial  replying  to  a  coarse  but  on  the  whole  truthful  and  accurate 
statement  concerning  the  morals  of  Negro  women,  asserts  that  it  is 
"the  Southern  Aristocrat"  who  is  responsible  for  the  mulattoes.  Issue 
9-2-1915. 

62 ".  .  .  Illegal  marriages  and  of  associations  of  whites  with  free  ne 
groes  was  so  disreputable  and  disgraceful  that  they  were  entered  into  by 
the  vilest  white  persons  at  the  price  of  chastisement  by  privately  or 
ganized  bands  of  white  persons  supported  by  community  sentiment.  The 
free  mulatto  class  .  .  .  was  of  course  the  result  of  illegal  relations  of 
white  persons  with  negroes ;  but  excepting  those  born  of  mulatto  parents, 
most  persons  of  the  class  were  not  born  of  free  negro  or  free  white 
mothers,  but  of  slave  mothers  and  were  set  free  because  of  their  kinship 
to  their  master  and  owner."  J.  H.  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Vir 
ginia,  p.  127. 

68  "It  must  be  said  that  the  stigma  of  illicit  intercourse  in  Pennsylvania 
would  not  generally  seem  to  rest  upon  the  masters,  but  rather  upon 
servants,  outcasts,  and  the  lowlier  class  of  whites."  The  Negro  in  Penn 
sylvania,  p.  31. 

54  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina,  pp.  83-84, 


146  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

secure  her  services  for  a  longer  period.  We  have  not 
the  least  evidence  that  such  a  thing  did  happen,  yet  it 
is  possible  that  a  master  might  for  that  reason  have 
compassed  the  sin  of  his  serving-woman. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  extent  to  which  the  master 
class  was  involved — and  there  is  no  doubt  that  some  portion 
of  the  bastard  race  was  the  offspring  of  temporary  associ 
ations  of  white  masters  and  slave  women — there  seems  to  be 
no  evidence  of  a  reliable  sort  to  indicate  that  all,  or  even 
the  major  part  of  the  mulatto  group,  was  of  this  origin.  B5 
Concubinage  certainly  involved  economically  prosperous  in 
dividuals  of  the  white  race  and  the  choicer  individuals  from 
among  the  darker  groups ;  the  casual  intermixture  was  char 
acteristic  of  the  undeniably  common  people  of  both  races. 

In  the  colonial  days,  one  group  of  the  mulatto  population 
owed  its  origin  to  illicit  intercourse  between  slave  women 
and  white  servants. 

The  first  introduction  of  the  white  indentured  servants 
into  the  colonies  is  not  known,56  but  by  1619,  when  the  first 
Negroes  came,  they  constituted  a  distinct  class  in  the  com 
munity  life.  The  system  was  a  colonial  modification  of  the 

88  There  is,  of  course,  no  scientific  credence  to  be  given  to  the  stories 
of  so  many  mixed-bloods  that  they  are  descendants  of  some  prominent 
man.  The  making  of  genealogies  is  not  confined  exclusively  to  the  newly- 
rich  class  of  the  whites.  It  is  not  meant  to  question,  however,  that  cer 
tain  eminent  men  may  have  been  fathers  of  mulattoes.  Benjamin  Frank 
lin  was  openly  accused  of  keeping  Negro  paramours  and  seems  to  have 
made  no  attempt  to  deny  it.  "What  is  sauce  for  the  goose  is  sauce  for 
the  gander."  (1764.)  "An  humble  attempt  at  scurrility."  (1765),  etc. 
Franklin,  however,  was  not  a  member  of  the  aristocratic  class.  His 
actions  are  rather  an  evidence  of  the  part  that  the  middle  and  lower 
class  had  to  do  with  the  production  of  the  mulattoes.  Thomas  Jefferson 
has  also  been  accused  of  being  the  father  of  mulatto  children  and  he 
certainly  was  of  the  aristocratic  class. 

88  J.  C.  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  p.  27,  f.  n. 


Nature  of.  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     147 

European  apprenticeship  system  then  in  vogue.57  In  gen 
eral,  this  indentured  servant  class  may  be  divided  into  three 
divisions  on  the  basis  of  the  cause  of  their  immigration  to 
America.58  Many  were  free,  poor  people,  anxious  to  go  to 
America  but  unable  to  pay  their  way,  who  pledged  their 
service  for  a  term  of  years  to  gain  passage.  There  were 
also  a  goodly  number  of  persons,  generally  children,  kid 
napped  in  the  streets  of  English  cities  and  sold  into  servi 
tude  in  the  colonies.  The  third  class  were  transported  fel 
ons,  dissolute  individuals,  vagabonds,  prisoners  of  war  and 
various  others  whom  the  government  was  anxious  to  get 
out  of  the  country.59  So  many  of  this  latter  class  wrere 
sent,  that  in  1663,  they  were  present  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  imperil  the  government.60  The  importation  was  stopped 
in  1671,  England  diverting  the  stream  for  a  time  to  the 
West  Indies ;  but  it  was  begun  again  in  1717  and  continued, 
in  spite  of  protests,  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  It  was 
not  effectively  stopped  before  1788.61  From  1664  to  1671, 
the  average  importation  into  Virginia  alone  was  fifteen  hun 
dred  a  year.62  It  is  estimated  that  from  1717  to  the  Revo 
lution  there  were  some  fifty  thousand  criminals  sent  to  the 
colonies.63 

This  white  indentured  servitude  was  just  reaching  its 
height  in  Virginia  at  the  time  the  first  Negroes  were  brought 
into  the  colony.64  The  number  of  Negroes  increased  slowly 

"McCormao,  White  Servitude  in  Maryland,  Chapter  1. 

M  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  p.  33.  Bassett, 
Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina,  pp.  75-77. 

"  Ibid,,  p.  30. 

"Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  pp.  36-37. 

«* Ibid.,  pp.  37-38. 

"Ibid.,  p.  41. 

*  H.  P.  Fairbanks,  Immigration,  p.  48.  See,  also,  McCormac,  White 
Servitude  in  Maryland,  pp.  93  ff. 

M  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  p.  91. 


148  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

at  first,65  there  being  only  thirty  in  the  colony  in  1650.  In 
1671  there  were  about  two  thousand  slaves  and  six  thousand 
white  servants  in  Virginia.  Twelve  years  later,  the  latter 
had  nearly  doubled,  while  the  blacks  had  increased  to  about 
three  thousand.  The  Negroes,  however,  proved  their  supe 
riority  as  a  servile  labor  class  and  from  about  1685  on 
white  servitude  began  to  give  way  to  black  slavery.  In 
Maryland,  the  white  servants  were  numerous  66  and  of  the 
same  general  type  as  those  of  Virginia.  Brackett  67  states 
that  the  English  jails  were  in  part  emptied  into  the  colonies 
and  adds  that  many  of  the  indentured  class  were  adventurers 
and  good-for-nothings.  Elsewhere  the  situation  was  simi 
lar,68  though  in  the  other  colonies  the  white  servants  did 
not  form  so  high  a  percentage  of  the  total  population.69 

It  was  these  servants  with  whom  the  Negroes  came  into 
closest  contact.  Many  of  them,  of  course,  were  highly  re 
spectable  persons,70  but  among  them  were  "disorderly  per 
sons,"  71  deported  convicts,  prostitutes,  and  the  like,  in 
great  numbers.  They  courted  the  Negroes  as  agreeable 
companions.72  The  social  condition  of  the  black  and  white 

"See  p.  107  f.  above. 

MSee  McCormac,  White  Servitude  in  Maryland,  Chapter  3,  "Number 
and  Economic  Importance." 

"Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  118. 

""Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  pp.  92-93. 

89  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  were  the  three  chief  colonies 
importing  white  servants. 

70 ".  .  .  In  many  instances  they  were  people  of  much  worth  who  had 
met  with  misfortune,  or  who  having  been  poor  in  the  first  place  had 
taken  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  make  their  fortunes  in  the  New 
World.  .  .  ."  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North 
Carolina,  p.  80. 

"Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  191. 

"See  Bassett,  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  22,  for  illu 
minating  side-light  on  the  consequences  of  the  association  of  the  Negroes 
and  the  low-class  whites. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     149 

servants  was  at  first  much  the  same ;  they  "were  bound  to 
gether  by  a  fellowship  of  toil."73  The  relatively  great  num 
ber  of  the  vicious  whites  in  certain  regions  74  made  it  in 
evitable  that  there  should  be  much  illicit  relations  between 
the  races.  The  first  case  of  intermixture  of  which  there  is 
any  record  is  that  of  a  white  servant  and  a  Negro  woman.75 
"During  the  first  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  century  there 
was  an  indiscriminate  mingling  and  marrying."76  Wil 
liams  adds :  77 

The  contact  of  these  two  elements — of  slaves  and 
convicts — was  neither  prudent  nor  healthy.  The  half- 
breed  population  increased  and  so  did  the  free  negroes. 
The  negroes  suffered  from  the  touch  of  moral  conta 
gion  of  this  effete  matter  driven  out  of  European  so 
ciety. 

There  was  a  provision  in  the  Maryland  law  of  1692  that 
any  white  man  who  married  with  or  had  a  child  by  a  Negro 

78  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  131. 
"The  population  of  the  present  territory  of  Baltimore  and  Hartford 
in  1752  was  given  as  follows: 

Free  whites   over         11,000 

White  servants   nearly       1,000 

Convicts    5,000  to     6,000 

Mulatto  slaves  116 

Negro  slaves    4,027 

Free  mulattoes  196 

Free  Negroes  8 

Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  pp.  175-76. 

75  This  was  the  case  of  Hugh  Davis.  He  was  publicly  flogged  Sep 
tember  17,  1630,  "before  an  assembly  of  negroes  and  others"  for  "defil 
ing  himself  with  a  negro."  "It  was  required  that  he  confess  as  much 
the  following  Sabbath."  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  p.  121, 
quoting  Henning.  See,  also,  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony 
of  Virginia,  pp.  72-73. 

"Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  131. 

"History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  247. 


150  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

woman  should  be  put  to  service  for  a  period  of  seven 
years.78  In  Pennsylvania,  a  white  servant  was  indicted  for 
sexual  offence  with  a  Negress  in  1677.79  In  1722,  the  As 
sembly  was  petitioned  for  relief  from  the  practice  of  white 
people  cohabiting  with  Negroes.  A  whole  tract  of  land  in 
Sussex  County  was  known  as  "Mulatto  Hall."  The  mu- 
lattoes,  who  were  numerous,  were  the  offspring  of  Negroes 
and  low-class  whites.80 

In  the  earlier  days,  the  association  between  the  Negro 
slaves  and  the  bonded  servants  was  close,  and  this  sym 
pathetic  relation  held  in  some  cases  as  between  the  free 
Negroes  and  the  freed  white  servants.  The  poor  whites 
in  many  cases  tried  to  screen  the  fugitive  slaves,81  and  the 
free  Negro  was  not  always  improved  by  freedom.  82  "It 
was  thought  that  a  rather  large  proportion  of  the  free 
colored  females,  particularly  free  mulattoes,  were  un 
chaste."83  In  Maryland,  there  was  a  special  legal  enact 
ment  to  cover  the  case  of  free  Negro  women  having  chil 
dren  of  white  men.84  Bassett  85  says  of  the  early  Negro 
slaves  that  "They  were  in  the  lowest  moral  condition  .  .  . 

"  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  33. 
"Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  29-30. 

80  Ibid.,  pp.  30-31. 

81  Bassett,   Slavery   and  Servitude   in   the   Colony   of   North   Carolina,, 
p.  34. 

83  "The  women  grew  unchaste,  the  men  dishonest,  until  in  many  minds 
the  term  'free  negro'  became  a  synonym  of  all  that  was  worthless  and 
despicable."  David  Dodge  [O.  W.  Blacknall],  "The  Free  Negroes  of 
North  Carolina."  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  57,  p.  26. 

83  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  p.  137.     He  adds:     "However 
this  may  have  been,  there  is  ample  documentary  evidence  to  show  that 
in  the  19th  century  there  was  a  large  class  of  the  free  colored  population 
the  members  of  which  were  respectable  and  observant  of  decency  and 
regularity  in  their  family  relation." 

84  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  pp.  33,  195. 

"Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina,  p.  30. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     151 

They  were  bestial,  given  to  the  worst  venereal  diseases  and 
they  had  little  or  no  regard  for  the  marriage  bond."  Brick- 
well,  who  was  a  physician,  says  that  the  white  men  of  the 
colony  suffered  a  great  deal  from  a  malignant  kind  of 
venereal  disease  which  they  took  from  the  slaves.86  The 
looseness  of  the  marriage  tie  among  the  free  blacks  was 
notorious.87  Strenuous  measures  were  necessary  to  main 
tain  order  among  the  assemblages  of  the  blacks  and  whites.88 

As  the  Negroes  increased  in  numbers,  however,  distinc 
tions  were  made  between  the  blacks  and  the  whites.  The 
heavier  work  was  put  upon  the  Negroes  "and  the  servant 
class  as  more  intelligent  was  reserved  for  the  lighter 
tasks."  89  The  Negresses  were  frequently  employed  in  the 
field  work  with  the  men.  Many  of  the  servants  were  taken 
into  the  master's  house.  "Women-servants  were  com 
monly  employed  as  domestics." 90 

The  servants,  as  a  class,  came  quickly  to  exaggerate  the 
difference.  They  worked  with  the  Negro  but  did  not  live 
with  him.  The  feeling  of  fellowship  that  at  first  existed 
between  the  white  servants  and  the  black  slaves  gradually 
gave  place  to  social  estrangement.91  "Yet,  in  spite  of  the 
strong  social  antipathies,  there  was  some  illicit  relations 

*' Ibid.,  pp.  30,  59.  It  is  probable  that  they  contracted  this  disease 
from  the  Indian  rather  than  from  the  Negro  slaves.  If  from  the  Ne 
groes,  they  had  received  it  from  the  Indians. 

87  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  189. 

88 ".  .  .  Friends  were  still  troubled  by  the  racing  of  horses  and  the 
meeting  of  negroes  .  .  .  Great  crowds  of  idle  whites  and  blacks,  thejr 
said,  drank  and  behaved  riotously  there — until,  in  1747,  horse  racing 
was  forbidden,  also,  and  the  constables  of  the  neighborhood  ordered  to 
disperse  all  crowds  of  slaves,  at  the  time  of  the  yearly  meetings,  if  nec 
essary  by  whipping  and  by  the  assistance  of  a  posse."  Ibid.,  p.  102. 

89  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  p.  69. 

*>  Ibid.,  p.  69. 

"Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in   Virginia,  pp.  124-27. 


152  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

between  shameless  white  persons  and  Negroes." 92  Wil 
liams,93  speaking  of  Maryland,  says  that  the  Negro  slaves 
who  were  at  first  courted  by  the  convicts  and  other  lowly 
whites,  at  length  came  to  be  treated  worse  by  them  than 
by  the  opulent  and  intelligent  slave  dealers. 

This  attitude  of  superiority  and  the  disposition  to  keep 
free  from  all  association  with  the  Negro,  which  was  at  all 
times  true  of  many  individuals  and  which  later  came  to  be 
a  marked  characteristic  of  the  whole  poor  white  class,  is 
thus  stated  by  Ballagh :  94 

The  natural  pride  of  the  free  man  sustained  this 
feeling,  together  with  the  strong  race  prejudice  that 
has  ever  separated  the  Englishman  from  an  inferior 
and  dependent  race.  .  .  .  These  sentiments  were  ef 
fective  with  the  better  class  of  servants  in  keeping  them 
aloof  from  association  with  such  inferiors.  With  con 
victs  and  the  lower  classes,  where  such  considerations 
were  not  always  sufficient,  the  law.  .  .  .  Freemen  and 
servants  alike  were  subjected  to  severe  penalties  for 
intercourse  with  negroes,  mulattoes  and  Indians,  and 
intermarriage  with  them  or  with  infidels  was  prohibited 
by  many  statutes  prescribing  the  punishment  both  for 
the  offender  and  the  minister  who  performed  the  cere 
mony.  The  limitation  of  the  servants,  marriages  upon 
the  master's  consent  was  a  sufficient  safe-guard  in  their 
case,  and  but  little  responsibility  may  be  regarded  as 
attaching  to  them  for  the  growth  of  the  mulatto  class. 
As  was  natural  between  two  dependent  classes  whose 
conditions  were  different  and  widely  in  favor  of  one 
class,  race  prejudice  and  pride  were  at  their  strongest 
and  developed  jealousies  which  did  not  exist  between 
master  and  his  dependent  or  the  freedman  and  the  slave. 
A  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  servants  to  keep  them- 

92  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  p.  124. 

93  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  247. 

94  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  pp.  71-73. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     153 

selves  free  from  all  association  with  negroes  was  per 
ceptible. 

Another  body  of  the  mulattoes  were  children  of  white 
servant  women  by  slave  and  free  Negro  men.  There  seems 
to  have  been  a  considerable  number  of  these  mulattoes  in 
Virginia  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.95  By 
the  law  of  Virginia,  these  children  were  bound  out  by  the 
church  wardens  until  the  age  of  thirty.  The  master  was 
required  to  provide  some  degree  of  education  for  the  ap 
prentices.96  The  servant  woman  guilty  of  having  a  mu 
latto  child  was  sold  for  five  years  as  a  punishment.97  These 
mulatto  children  of  white  women  account,  in  small  part,  for 
the  large  number  of  free  mulattoes  in  Virginia  in  the  middle 
and  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.98 

In  Maryland  from  1692,  there  were  penalties  for  white 
women  allowing  themselves  to  be  with  child  by  colored  per 
sons  and  for  colored  men  guilty  of  the  act.99  The  same 
penalty  was  provided  for  slaves  and  free  colored  persons.100 
Says  McCormac : 101 

While  this  law  [1681]  very  effectually  protected  the 
servant  from  evil  designs  of  an  avaricious  master,  it 
did  not  prevent  lewd  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  ser 
vant.  Mingling  of  the  races  continued  during  the  18th 

06  Ibid.,  pp.  72-74. 

M  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  pp.  40  ff.,  138. 

91  "Where  the  offence  occurred,  then,  it  was  more  likely  to  do  so  in 
the  case  of  a  free  person  than  of  a  servant,  .  .  ."  Ballagh,  White  Servi 
tude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  p.  73. 

98  W.  H.  Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  p.  6. 

99  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  196. 

100  Ibid.,  p.  191.    "There  were  not  a  few  cases  of  such  offspring."     In 
1790  there  is  a  case  of  a  sale  of  a  white  woman  and  her  mulatto  child 
as  servants.     There   are  other   cases   in   1793   and   1794.     See,   also,  p. 
140  f.  n. 

101  McCormac,  White  Servitude  in  Maryland,  pp.  69-70. 


154  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

century,  in  spite  of  all  laws  against  it.  Preventing 
the  marriage  of  white  servants  with  slaves  only  led  to 
a  greater  social  evil,  which  caused  a  reaction  of  public 
sentiment  against  the  servant.  Masters  and  society  in 
general  were  burdened  with  the  care  of  illegitimate  mu 
latto  children.  .  .  . 

In  Pennsylvania,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Phil 
adelphia,  a  mulatto  population  grew  up,  some  of  which 
were  slave  and  some  were  free,  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  mother.  Says  Turner:102 

.  .  .  The  child  of  a  slave  was  not  necessarily  a  slave 
if  one  of  the  parents  was  free.  The  line  of  servile 
descent  lay  through  the  mother.  Accordingly  the  child 
of  a  slave  mother  and  a  free  father  was  a  slave,  of  a 
free  mother  and  a  slave  father  a  servant  for  a  term  of 
years  only.  The  result  of  the  application  of  this  doc 
trine  to  the  offspring  of  a  negro  and  a  white  person 
was  that  the  mulattoes  were  divided  into  two  classes. 
Some  were  servants  for  a  term  of  years ;  the  others 
formed  a  third  class  of  slaves. 

The  act  of  1725-1726  recognized  this.  The  law  enumer 
ated  four  classes  of  Negro  servants.  "Fourthly,  all  mu 
latto  children  who  were  not  slaves  for  life,  were  to  be  bound 
out  until  they  were  thirty-one  years  of  age."  103  Bassett,104 
in  enumerating  the  sources  of  the  free  Negro  population, 
says: 

Another  [source]  was  the  children  of  white  women 
by  negro  men.  There  is  evidence  that  not  a  few  such 
people  were  in  the  government.  Taken  all  together, 
there  was  a  considerable  number  of  free  negroes  among 
the  people  by  the  close  of  the  Colonial  period. 

103  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  pp.  24-25. 
™Ibid.}  pp.  91-92. 

104  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina,  p.  67. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     155 

Delaware  in  1721  passed  an  act  punishing  adultery  and 
fornication.  It  provided  that  in  case  of  children  of  a  white 
woman  by  a  slave,  the  County  Court  bound  them  out  until 
they  were  thirty-one  years  of  age.105  The  number  of  mu- 
lattoes  born  to  white  women  was  nowhere  large  but  that 
the  number  was  considerable  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt. 

There  appears  also  to  have  been  some  intermixture  be 
tween  the  low-class  white  women  and  the  Indian  men.106 
The  Indians  were  never  under  the  social  ban  to  the  same 
extent  as  the  Negro.  The  distinction  between  mulattoes, 
musteeSy  and  half-breed  Indians  was  not  always  clearly 
made ;  the  term  mulatto  was  frequently  used  to  include  all 
three.107  It  may  well  be  that  in  some  of  the  cases  men 
tioned  of  white  women  having  mulatto  children,  the  off 
spring  were  really  half-breed  Indians. 

Intermarriage  with  Indians 

The  Negro  has  everywhere  and  at  all  times  mixed  freel}7 
with  the  Indian.  The  barriers  to  social  equality  were  less 
between  them  than  between  either  and  the  white.  There  was 
some  ground  of  sympathy  between  them  and  there  were 
no  laws  forbidding  intermixture.108  In  many  of  the  colo 
nies,  the  first  slaves  were  Indians.109  The  captives  in  battle 

106  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  250. 
JO'Brackett,   The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.   117,  mentions  such  a  case. 

".  .  .  At  about  the  same  time,  a  Pocomok  Indian  was  imprisoned  for 
rape  of  an  English  woman.  ...  As  it  was  found  that  the  woman  had 
willingly  erred,  the  Indian  was  merely  whipped,  according  to  English 
law,  and  advised  by  the  court  to  be  more  circumspect." 

107  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in   Virginia,  p.   130.     See,  also,   Bassett, 
Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  90.     He  here  quotes  a  cor 
respondent  as  saying  that  "many  of  them   [ mulattoes  1   were  descended 
from  Indian  and  .  .  ." 

108  Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  pp.  41,  127  ff. 

109  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude   in   the   Colony  of  North   Carolina, 


156  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

were  enslaved,110  and  not  a  few  were  kidnapped  along  the 
unsettled  coasts  and  sold  into  slavery  among  the  more  set 
tled  colonies.111  How  many  Indian  slaves  there  were,  it 
is  impossible  to  say ;  they  were  classed  with  the  blacks  and 
no  difference  was  made  between  them  and  other  slaves.112 
They  were  not  particularly  adapted  to  slavery,113  and  as 
the  Negroes  increased,  they  gradually  disappeared.114  They 
were  thrown  into  close  association  with  the  Negroes,  inter 
married  readily  with  them,  and  were  gradually  absorbed  by 
and  disappeared  into  the  growing  body  of  blacks.115 

pp.  71-74.  B.  C.  Steiner,  A  History  of  Slavery  in  Connecticut,  pp.  9  ff. 
"Indian  Slavery." 

110  Massachusetts  sold  the  captives  in  King  William's  war  into  slavery. 
Virginia  made  slaves  for  life  of  those  Indians  taken  in  war  but  hesi 
tated  to  do  so  with  those  oifered  for  sale  by  other  Indians.  Steiner, 
A  History  of  Slavery  in  Connecticut,  p.  9.  Brackett,  The  Negro  in 
Maryland,  p.  19.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North 
Carolina,  pp.  72  ff. 

m  The  first  slaves  in  North  Carolina  were  of  this  sort.    Ibid.,  p.  71. 

112  H.  S.  Cooley,  A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey,  pp.  11-13. 

118  "At  first  some  masters  enslaved  Indian  women  to  increase  their 
slave-progeny.  This  cross  was  not  adapted  to  slavery,  because  those  of 
Indian  blood  knew  the  country  and  were  better  able  to  escape.  Conse 
quently  a  law  was  passed  in  most  states  forbidding  the  enslavement  of 
the  children  of  Indian  mothers.  For  this  reason  many  Negro  men  took 
Indian  wives  so  that  their  children  might  be  born  free.  .  .  ."  J.  F. 
Gould,  "The  Negro  Finding  Himself,"  Speech  before  the  Boston  Business 
League,  A  Negro  Organization.  Quoted  in  the  Boston  Reliance,  a  Negro 
newspaper.  It  is  not  meant  for  humor. 

114  Massachusetts  in  1712  and  Connecticut  in  1716  forbade  the  impor 
tation  of  Indian  slaves  on  the  ground  that  they  were  fierce  and  caused 
trouble.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Caro 
lina,  p.  73. 

™Ibid.,  p.  72.  Dodge,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  57,  pp.  29-30. 
many,  if  not  the  larger  part  of  the  free  negroes  whose  freedom  dates 
further  back  than  this  century  show  traits  in  mind  and  body  that  are 
unmistakably  Indian.  .  .  ."  The  Indians  seem  to  have  been  more  used 
as  concubines  than  were  the  Negresses  and  consequently  more  of  them 
set  free  because  they  had  borne  half-breed  children.  This  was  especially 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  m  United  States     157 

The  reservations  set  apart  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight 
eenth  centuries  in  many  cases  became  the  common  home  for 
Indians  and  free  Negroes.116  117  As  the  Negroes  frequently 
outnumbered  the  Indians,  these  settlements  generally  lost 
all  but  a  tradition  of  Indian  ancestry.118  Runaway  slaves 
frequently  sought  refuge  among  the  Indians.  In  some 
cases,  they  were  harbored119  and  taken  into  the  tribe.  In 

true  of  the  French  settlements.  Both  the  French  and  the  English  feel 
less  repugnance  toward  the  Indian  than  toward  the  Negro.  H.  A. 
Trexler,  Slavery  in  Missouri,  p.  80.  See,  also,  note  118,  p.  157  below. 

118  John  Fisk,  The  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  2,  pp.  427  if.,  has  an 
excellent  brief  description  of  Indian  slavery. 

117  A  petition  in  1843  in  regard  to  the  Pamunkey  reservation  in  King 
Williams  County  stated  "that  all  but  a  small  remnant  of  the  old  Indian 
tribe  was  extinct,  and  that  in  its  place  were  free  mulattoes,  .  .  .     'They 
are  so  mingled  with  the  negro  race  as  to  have  obliterated  all  striking 
features  of  Indian  extraction.     It  is  the  general  resort  of  free  negroes 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.' "     Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia, 
p.  129.     White  persons  in  the  vicinity  of  the  reservation  of  the  Notta- 
ways  and  kindred  tribes  affirmed,  in  1821,  that  the  wives  and  husbands 
of  the  Indians  were  free  Negroes  and  "that  they  had  neither  prudence 
nor  economy."     Ibid.,  p.  129.     Of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Gingaskin  res 
ervation  it  was  said  in   1787  ''that  those  who  were  not  entirely  black 
had  'at  least  half  black  blood  in  them.'     The  place  was  called  Indian 
Town,  but  many  of  the  squaws  had  negroes  for  husbands,  and  the  Indian 
braves  lived  with  black  wives."     Ibid.,  p.  128. 

118  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.     Handbook  of  the  American  In 
dians,  Part  1,  p.  914.    "There  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  broken  coast 
tribes  have  been  completely  absorbed  into  the  negro  race."     See,  also, 
p.  81  above. 

119  "In    treaties   made    with    the   governor    of   Maryland   with   various 
Indians,  in  1661  and  1663,  there  is  the  stipulation  that  the  Indians  are 
to  return   any   runaway   'Englishmen.'     Later   the   neighboring   Indians 
were  encouraged  to  seize  runaways  by  the  reward  of  a  blanket  or  its 
value.     Treaties  with  them  forbade  their  harboring  servants  and  slaves, 
who  were  to  be  given  over  to  the  nearest  English  plantation.    The  back 
woods  offered  a  near  retreat  for  runaways.    As  a  certain  tribe  of  Indians 
had  evidently  been  regardless  of  the  rights  of  the  good  people  of  Mary 
land  in  their  servants  and  slaves,  the  Governor  and  Council  decided,  in 


158  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

other  cases,  they  simply  became  the  slaves  of  the  Indians 
among  whom  they  sought  refuge.120  The  Cherokees  and 
the  Creeks  were  large  slave  holders  and  for  the  most  part 
mixed  on  terms  of  equality  with  their  black  slaves.  The 
Seminoles  at  a  later  date  owned  large  numbers  of  slaves 
with  whom  they  had  intermixed.  There  seem  also  to  have 
been  in  their  tribe  many  runaways  who  were  not  classed  as 
slaves. 

Intermixture  During  Slavery  and  at  Present 

The  illicit  relations  between  the  Negroes  and  the  low- 
class  whites,  which  in  some  regions  at  least  characterized  the 
racial  situation  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  colo 
nial  period,  very  greatly  decreased  as  the  institution  of 
slavery  developed.  On  the  one  hand,  the  general  and  bit 
ter  hatred  that  existed  everywhere  in  the  slave  states  be 
tween  the  "poor  white  class"  and  the  slaves  tended  to  keep 
the  races  apart  and  to  keep  intermixture  at  a  minimum.121 

1722,  to  send  to  these  a  messenger  with  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friend 
ship,  and  the  promise  of  a  reward  of  two  blankets  and  a  gun  to  every 
Indian  who  should  return  a  slave.  These  allurements  were  evidently 
unavailing,  for  three  years  later  it  was  decided  to  send  again,  to  invite 
the  chiefs  to  Annapolis.  .  .  ."  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  pp. 
74-75. 

mBassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina, 
p.  57,  quotes  Brikell,  Natural  History  of  North  Carolina,  p.  273,  as  say 
ing  that  "The  Indians  .  .  .  had  a  natural  and  irreconcilable  hatred  for 
the  negroes  and  delighted  in  torturing  them.  When  they  would  meet 
runaways  in  the  woods  they  would  attack  them  vigorously,  either  killing 
them  or  driving  them  back  to  the  whites." 

121  This  was  by  no  means  always  the  case  between  the  free  Negroes  and 
the  poor  whites.  See  Bassett,  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina, 
p.  43.  Dodge,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  59,  p.  29,  says:  ".  .  .  Hardly  a 
neighborhood  was  free  from  low  white  women  who  married  or  co 
habited  with  free  negroes.  Well  can  I  recollect  the  many  times  when, 
with  the  inconsiderate  curiosity  of  a  child,  I  hurriedly  climbed  the  front 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     159 

On  the  other  hand,  whatever  may  have  been  the  extent  of 
the  irregular  relationships  between  the  slave-holding  class 
and  their  female  slaves,  the  slave  system  as  a  working  and 
developed  institution  regulated  strictly  the  conduct  of  the 
slaves  and  thereby  restricted,  in  a  measure,  irregular  rela 
tions  between  them  and  the  general  white  population.122 
Miss  Frances  A.  Kemble,  who  spent  some  time  in  Georgia 
about  1850,  naively  testifies  to  this  fact.123 

I   observed,   among   the    numerous   groups    that   we 
passed  or  met,  a  much  larger  proportion  of  mulattoes 

than  at  the  rice-island :  upon  asking  Mr wny  this 

was  so,  he  said  that  there  no  white  person  could  land 
without  his  or  the  overseer's  permission,  whereas  on  St. 
Simon's  which  is  a  large  island  containing  several  plan 
tations  belonging  to  different  owners,  of  course  the 
number  of  whites,  both  residing  on  and  visiting  the 
place,  was  much  greater,  and  the  opportunity  for  in 
tercourse  between  the  blacks  and  whites  much  more 
frequent.124 

gate-post  to  get  a  good  look  at  a  shriveled  old  woman  trudging  down 
the  lane,  who,  when  young,  I  was  told,  had  had  her  free-negro  lover 
bled,  and  drank  some  of  his  blood,  so  that  she  might  swear  she  had 
Negro  blood  in  her." 

"2  Bruce,   The  Plantation  Negro   as  a  Freeman,  p.   17,  gives  a  good 
statement  of  the  restraining  effects  of  slavery  on  the  Negro. 

123  Residence   on  a  Georgian  Plantation,  p.   162. 

124  In  another  place,  speaking  of  a  certain  mulatto  woman,  Miss  Kem 
ble  says:    "This  woman  was  a  mulatto  daughter  of  a  slave  called  Sophy, 
by  a  white  man  of  the  name  of  Walker,  who  visited  the  plantation,"  p. 
190.     Of  another  mulatto  she  says:     "The  woman's   father  had  been  a 
white  man  who  was  employed  for  some  purpose  on  the  estate,"  p.  194. 
It  was  of  course  to  the  master's  interest  to  prevent  intermixture  so  far 
as  he  was  able  to  do  so.     "If  a  woman  had  children  she  was  rendered 
less   desirable  as  a  slave.  .  .  ."     Frequently  slave  women   were  offered 
for   sale   for   no  other   reason   than   that   they   had   children.       Cooley, 
A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey,  p.  55.     However,  this  was  not  al 
ways  the   case.     Brickell,  Natural  History   of  North   Carolina,  p.   272, 


160  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

In  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  South,  however,  there  was 
no  such  degree  of  restraint  exercised  over  the  slaves  as  was 
the  case  on  the  plantations.  Opportunities  for  association 
with  others  than  the  master  class  were  greatly  increased.  A 
much  larger  per  cent  of  the  slaves  were  house  servants.  The 
number  of  free  Negroes  and  free  mulattoes  was  larger.  The 
better  opportunity  for  association  resulted  in  a  greatly  in 
creased  amount  of  intermixture  in  the  cities.125  Here  there 
was  a  casual  mixture  totally  different  in  kind  from  the  more 
or  less  permanent  or  regular  association  that  frequently 
existed  between  the  slave  owner  and  a  favorite  Negress. 
It  was  in  general  the  vicious  elements  of  the  whites  which 
were  responsible  for  the  mulattoes  in  the  cities ;  on  the  plan 
tations,  generally  speaking,  the  Negro  woman  was  screened 
as  far  as  possible  from  association  with  this  class  of  whites. 

The  disorganization  resulting  from  the  breakdown  of  the 
master  and  slave  relationship,  brought  with  it  an  enormous 
increase  of  racial  intermixture.  The  restraint  under  which 
the  slaves  had  been  held  shielded  them  from  general  asso 
ciation  with  the  vicious  whites.  As  they  realized  the  fact 
of  their  freedom,  they  wandered  in  great  numbers  to  the 
towns  and  cities  126  where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  a  pro- 
says  that  "a  fruitful  woman  amongst  them  being  very  much  valued  by 
the  planters  and  a  numerous  issue  esteemed  the  greatest  riches  in  the 
country."  Quoted  by  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of 
North  Carolina,  pp.  57-58. 

125  "The  slave-holders  of  the  Southern  states  .  .  .  are  benevolently  do 
ing  their  best,  in  one  way  at  least,  to  raise  and  improve  the  degraded 
race,  and  the  bastard  population  which  forms  so  ominous  an  element 
in  the  social  safety  of  their  cities  .  .  ."  Kemble,  Residence  on  a  Geor 
gian  Plantation,  p.  14.  That  it  was  essentially  a  city  phenomenon  in 
the  South  is  correct:  that  it  was  the  slave-holding  class  which  was  re 
sponsible,  wholly  or  chiefly,  is  notoriously  undemonstrable. 

"'  Steiner,  A  History  of  Slavery  in  Connecticut,  p.  80,  comments  upon 
this  tendency  of  the  manumitted  slaves  of  Connecticut  and  attributes 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  m  United  States     161 

longed  celebration  which  was  frequently  characterized  by  a 
more  or  less  promiscuous  sexual  intercourse  among  the  Ne 
groes  themselves  and  between  their  women  and  the  vicious 
white  elements  of  the  cities.127 

Wherever  the  Union  armies  went  in  the  South,  they  were 
besieged  by  an  army  of  Negro  women.  Says  Thomas,  a 
severe  and  unsympathetic  but  on  the  whole  a  frank  and 
accurate  critic  of  his  own  race: 128 

...  It  may  have  been  the  outcroppings  of  grati 
tude  to  Federal  victors,  or  reckless  abandon  to  lust, 
but  the  inciting  cause  is  immaterial,  so  long  as  the 
shameful  fact  is  true,  that,  wherever  our  armies  were 
quartered  in  the  South  the  negro  women  flocked  to 
their  camps  for  infamous  riot  with  the  white  soldiery. 
All  occupied  cities,  suburban  rendezvous,  and  rural 
bivouacs,  bore  witness  to  the  mad  havoc  daily  wrought 
in  black  womanhood  by  our  citizen  soldiery.  We  have 
personal  knowledge  of  many  Federal  officers  of  high 
station,  and  some  of  strong  prejudices  against  the 
race,  who  openly  kept  negro  mistresses  in  their  army 
quarters ;  nor  do  we  doubt  that  the  present  lax  mo 
rality  everywhere  observable  among  negro  womenkind  is 
largely  due  to  the  licentious  freedom  which  the  war 
engendered  among  them.  Slavery  had  its  blighting  evils, 
but  also  its  wholesome  restraints.129 

At  the  present  time,  the  intermixture  of  the  races  seems 
to  be  going  on  more  rapidly  than  at  any  time  in  the  past.130 

it  to  "their  gregarious  tendencies."  See,  also,  J.  R.  Brackett,  Notes  on 
the  Progress  of  the  Colored  People  Since  the  War,  p.  25. 

137  F.  A.  Bancroft,  The  Negro  in  Politics,  pp.  14  ff. 

^The  American  Negro,  p.  14. 

""It  is  a  significant  fact  that  venereal  diseases  were  practically  un 
known  in  the  South  outside  of  a  few  cities  before  the  War  and  the  Ne 
groes  were  generally  free  from  them.  Following  the  wake  of  the  Union 
armies  they  rapidly  spread  throughout  the  whole  black  population  of  the 
South.  See,  however,  p.  151  above. 

"°  Sir  Harry  H,  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  tJie  New  World,  p.  98,  points 


162  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

As  has  been  previously  pointed  out,  some  of  this  increase  is 
due  to  legal  intermarriage  between  the  races,  and  some  to 
a  more  or  less  ordered  but  unlawful  concubinage  of  mu 
latto  and  Negro  girls  by  white  men.  Relations  of  a  more 
vicious  sort,  however,  are  responsible  for  the  large  per 
cent; 131  and  these  take  two  forms.  On  the  one  hand,  there 
is  a  debauching  by  white  men  of  the  lighter-colored  mu 
latto  girls  whom  they,  of  course,  do  not  marry.  In  their 
turn,  the  mulatto  men  debauch,  but  refuse  to  marry,  the 
black  girls.  132 

It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the  amount  of  inter 
mixture  is,  in  general,  proportional  to  the  opportunity  for 
contact.  Granting  numerous  individual  exceptions,  the  gen 
eral  statement  holds  true  that  the  women  of  a  lower  race 
everywhere  are  honored  by  the  attention  of  the  men  of  a 
superior  caste.  It  is  not  only  true  of  the  Negro,  but  is 
true  of  every  race  or  class  within  a  race,  which  is  culturally 
inferior  and  recognizes  itself  as  inferior. 

In  summarizing,  we  may  say  that  the  intermixture  of  the 
races  everywhere  has  gone  on  to  the  extent  of  the  white 
man's  wishes.  The  Negro  woman  never  has  objected  to, 

out  a  similar  fact  in  regard  to  Brazil.  "After  emancipation  the  move 
ment  toward  a  fusion  of  the  races  between  the  ex-slave  and  the  de 
scendants  of  his  Luso-Brazilian  masters  went  on  more  rapidly  even  than 
during  the  three  centuries  of  mild  servitude." 

181  The  great  majority  of  the  mixed-blood  race  is  of  course  the  result 
of  marriage  between  the  mulattoes  themselves. 

182  Said  a  Negro  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretary,  speaking  before  a  mixed  audi 
ence  at  the  Frederick  Douglass  Center  in   Chicago:     ".  .  .  No  colored* 
girl  who  comes  to  Chicago  has  been  in  the  city  forty-eight  hours  with 
out  being  besieged  by  the  colored  men  and  boys  of  the  city  whose  one 
effort  and  desire  is  to  work  her  downfall.    We  talk  of  the  way  in  which 
the  white  men  wrong  our  girls  but  it  is  our  men  and  boys  who  least 
respect  and  honor  them."    The  black  girl  is  nattered  by  these  attentions, 
especially  when  they  come  from  mulatto  men  just  as  the  mulatto  girl 
is  nattered  by  the  attention  of  white  men. 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  m  United  States     163 

and  has  generally  courted,  the  relationship.  It  was  never 
at  any  time  a  matter  of  compulsion ;  on  the  contrary  it  was  ' 
a  matter  of  being  honored  by  a  man  of  a  superior  race. 
Speaking  generally,  the  amount  of  intermixture  is  limited 
only  by  the  self-respect  of  the  white  man  and  the  com 
pelling  strength  of  the  community  sentiment. 

Intermixture  went  on  rapidly  during  the  colonial  days 
especially  where  the  Negro  was  in  contact  with  the  inden-^_ 
tured  servant  class,  and  in  regions  where  there  was  a  scar 
city  of  white  women.  There  was  a  large  intermixture  be 
tween  the  Indians  and  the  Negroes  wherever  these  two  races  ^ 
were  in  contact.  Occasionally  the  Negro  men  found  white 
wives  or  formed  extra-matrimonial  alliances  with  the  white 
women  of  the  servant  class.  As  the  status  of  the  slave  be 
came  better  defined  and  a  social  difference  was  made,  the 
friendly  relation  between  the  Negroes  and  the  white  servants 
gave  place  to  a  feeling  of  hatred  between  the  Negro  and  the 
poor  white  class.  This,  together  with  the  more  strict  dis 
cipline  over  the  slaves,  generally  prevented  much  inter 
mixture  of  these  classes  during  the  period  that  slavery  ex 
isted  as  a  national  institution. 

Mixture  of  the  races  probably  went  on  more  slowly  dur 
ing  the  period  that  slavery  existed  as  a  national  institu 
tion,  than  in  the  period  before  or  the  period  since.  Such 
relations  as  existed  between  the  master  class  and  the  slave 
women  were  generally  a  kind  of  sub-surface  polygamy  and 
were  rather  a  process  of  further  whitening  the  mixed-blood 
race  than  a  mixture  of  the  whites  and  blacks.  This  was  dur 
ing  the  slavery  period,  and  the  same  thing  is  true  to-day 
where  concubinage  exists,  the  relation  being  generally  one 
between  a  mulatto  woman  and  a  white  man ;  seldom  a  rela 
tion  between  a  white  man  and  a  Negro  woman.133 

"•W.  Laird  Clowes,  Black  America,  pp.  142-43,  points  out  that  "the 


164  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

The  amount  of  racial  intermixture,  being  conditioned  by 
the  opportunity  for  association  of  the  races  and  especially 
for  association  of  the  lower  classes,  has,  in  general,  been 
greatest  where  the  Negro  has  been  least  numerous  as  com 
pared  to  the  white  race.  Consequently  the  intermixture  al 
ways  has  been  greater  in  the  cities  and  towns  than  in  the 
I  rural  districts,  and  relatively  greater  in  the  North  than 
in  the  South.  Since  the  freedom  of  the  Negroes  and  their 
immigration  to  the  towns  and  cities,  intermixture  of  the 
races  in  the  South  has  increased.  It  is  in  the  urban  situa 
tion  that  the  Negro  girls  and  women  come  into  contact  most 
frequently  with  dissolute  white  men.  It  is  there,  too,  that 
the  opportunity  to  conceal  the  relationship  makes  the  con 
trol  of  the  situation  by  the  prevailing  public  sentiment  less 
effective  than  in  the  rural  situation. 

Finally,  such  intermixture  of  the  races  as  now  goes  on, 
outside  a  very  little  intermarriage,  is,  for  the  most  part, 
between  the  vicious  elements  of  both  races.  Under  the  slave 
regime,  especially  as  it  took  place  outside  the  cities,  it  was 
often  a  relation  between  a  better  class  of  white  men  than 
is  now  usually  the  case  and  the  choicest  and  usually  the 
lightest-colored  Negro  girls.  At  the  present  time,  there  is 
a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  better-class  whites  and  a 
growing  sentiment  among  the  Negro  middle-class  to  avoid 
such  relationships.  Ther*e  is,  however,  much  intermixture 
between  certain  classes  of  whites  and  mulatto  girls  134  and 
between  mulatto  men  and  Negro  girls.  It  seems  to  be  on 

chief  sinners — if  sinners  they  can  be  called  in  such  connection — are  the 
coloured,  as  distinct  from  the  pure  negro,  women  of  the  South." 

134  Mr.  DuBois  has  pointed  out  that  the  process  of  intermixture  goes 
on  between  the  mulatto  girls  and  the  lower  grade  of  whites.  ".  .  .  in 
many  an  instance  a  prudent  negro  mother  finds  it  wise  to  send  her 
good-looking  yellow  daughter  to  some  institution  to  save  her  from  the 
temptation  of  association  with  the  lowest  grade  of  white  boys  in  the 


Nature  of  Race  Intermixture  in  United  States     165 

the  whole,  though  not  exclusively,  a  casual  association  of 
the  lower  classes  of  the  whites  and  frequently  the  lower 
classes  of  both  races. 

neighborhood."  Quoted  by  Raymond  Patterson,  The  Negro  and  His 
Needs,  p.  35. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  with  the  situation  in  Chile  where,  it 
is  said,  that  "very  few  prostitutes  can  make  a  living"  because  the  half- 
breed  girls  "are  so  easy."  E.  A.  Ross,  South  of  Panama,  pp. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   GROWTH   OF   THE   MULATTO    CLASS 

THE  first  Negroes  introduced  into  the  English  Colonies 
in  America  were  probably  not  introduced  as  slaves.1 
White  servitude  was  the  rule  before  the  Negro  came.  He 
was  brought  into  more  or  less  intimate  contact  with  these 
white  indentured  servants,  and  probably  little  difference 
was  at  first  made  between  his  status  and  theirs.  It  was  the 
first  contact  in  any  appreciable  numbers  of  the  North  Euro 
pean  peoples  with  the  African  races.  Aside  from  what 
ever  natural  antipathy  may  have  existed  between  people  so 
widely  different  in  physical  appearance,  there  Vas  no  sen 
timent  of  hostility  toward  the  black  man,  no  traditional 
prejudice,  and  no  customary  caste  feeling  of  superiority.2 
Such  feeling  as  did  exist  was  probably  not  so  much  a  mat 
ter  of  race  as  it  was  a  matter  of  religion.3  The  Negroes 
were  "heathen"  and  the  distinction  was  between  Christians 
and  Barbarians  rather  than  between  people  of  white  and 

1  "Beyond  all  question  the  first  negroes  brought  in  were  not  introduced 
as  freemen.  The  only  question  is  whether,  upon  entering  the  colony, 
they  became  servants  or  slaves.  .  .  ."  J.  H.  Russell,  The  Free  Negro 
in  Virginia,  p.  23.  See,  also,  p.  19. 

'Ibid.,  p.  137. 

H.  S.  Cooley,  A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey,  p.  57. 

Edward  Ingle,  The  Negro  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  p.  43. 

David  Dodge,  "The  Free  Negroes  of  North  Carolina,"  Atlantic 
Monthly,  Vol.  57,  p.  24,  gives  1830  as  the  date,  and  reaction  against  abo 
litionism  the  cause,  of  change  in  race  prejudice. 

8J.  R.  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  pp.  30  if. 

166 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  167 

people  of  black  skiiu 

The  early  colonial  conception  of  slavery  was  very  dif 
ferent  from  that  which  came  to  prevail  at  a  later  time.  The 
system  was  new,  imperfect,  immature ;  there  existed  no  crys 
tallized  body  of  doctrine  as  to  the  slaves'  condition  or  sta 
tus.  Nor  was  there  any  strong  body  of  sentiment  opposed 
to  the  institution.  The  seventeenth  century  idea  of  a  slave 
was  that  of  a  servant  for  life.  It  was  for  the  most  part 
a  domestic  institution  as  opposed  to  an  industrial  one.  The 
slaves  were  recognized  as  persons  not,  as  in  the  later  con 
ception,  things.  In  most  cases,  they  lived  in  close  relation 
to  the  family  of  the  master  and  neither  in  law  nor  in  cus 
tom  were  they  regarded  in  any  way  as  very  different  from 
other  servants  and  apprentices.  They  were  laborers  and 
probably  not  considered,  nor  treated  very  differently  from 
other  laborers.  The  very  strangeness  of  the  Africans  and 
their  physical,  cultural,  and  temperamental  differences 
from  the  settlers  may  have  given  them  a  status  unlike  that 
of  other  persons  in  the  colonies.  Their  number  was  very 
small,  however,  and  it  was,  in  general,  a  generation  after 
their  first  introduction  before  black  slavery  was  recognized 
by  law.  It  had  existed  as  a  well-established  and  well-under 
stood  custom  long  before  it  anywhere  received  legal  sanc 
tion. 

But  gradually  the  Negroes  acquired  or  were  assigned  a 
separate  and  inferior  status.  From  the  status  of  servants, 
they  acquired  the  status  of  servants  for  life,  or  slaves,  and 
finally  that  of  servants  in  perpetuity.  As  white  servitude 
declined,  the  status  of  servant  or  slave  came  to  be  asso 
ciated  with  color;  and  slavery  became  the  presumptive  sta 
tus  of  all  Negroes.  Moreover,  the  early  conception  of  a 
slave  as  a  person  serving  for  life,  gave  place  to  the  concep 
tion  of  a  slave  as  a  thing  rather  than  as  a  person.  "Grad- 


168  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ually,"  says  Turner,4  "the  very  best  negroes  had  come  to 
be  regarded  as  of  an  alien  race,  and  as  an  outcast  and  de 
graded  people  with  whom  no  intimate  association  was  pos 
sible."  Color  prejudice  grew  up  as  the  characteristics  of 
the  Negroes  became  better  known  and  increased  in  strength 
with  the  increase  in  numbers  of  the  blacks.5  Where  the 
numbers  remained  small,  the  prejudice  remained  very  largely 
a  simple,  organic,  repulsive  reaction  against  the  strange 
and  the  ugly.  As  long  as  the  numbers  remained  so  small 
as  to  constitute  no  immediate  menace,  the  outward  ex 
pression  of  the  race  prejudice  remained  in  abeyance.  Where 
the  slaves  were  more  numerous  and  better  known,  the  sen 
timents  and  attitudes  were  more  definitely  organized  and 
the  Negro,  as  such,  was  assigned  a  separate  and  lower  eco 
nomic  and  social  status  as  the  only  conceivable  working 
relation  that  could  exist  between  two  groups  at  the  oppo 
site  extremes  of  human  culture. 

This  race,  ever  more  and  more  separated  from  the  white 
group  by  the  action  of  the  whites,  was  in  no  sense  a  homo 
geneous  group.6  Its  members  were  much  alike  as  to  color 
and  other  physical  characteristics,  but  in  temperament 7 
and  in  talent  they  differed  much  as  other  men  differ.  As 
their  domestication  progressed,  they  rapidly  became  a  less 

4E.  R.  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  199. 

5  Ibid.,  p.  143.  See,  also,  J.  C.  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony 
of  Virginia,  pp.  97  if.;  and  G.  W.  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race 
in  America,  Vol.  1,  p.  142. 

a  There  were  among  the  slaves,  representatives  of  many  African 
tribes  as  well  as  Australian  Blacks,  natives  of  Oceania  and  New 
Guinea.  Well  over  one-half  of  the  slaves,  however,  were  Negroes  from 
the  West  African  Coast.  See  C.  H.  Otken,  Ills  of  the  South,  pp.  203  if. 
for  an  attempt  to  identify  and  evaluate  the  diiferent  tribal  elements. 

T  The  very  considerable  number  of  Indians  and  later  of  Indian-Negro 
intermixtures  among  the  slaves  did  much  to  increase  the  temperamental 
diiferences. 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  169 

and  less  homogeneous  group.  This  natural  differentiation 
within  the  group,  due  to  the  different  rate  at  which  indi 
viduals  were  able  to  accommodate  themselves  to  civilized 
manners  and  customs,  was  being  constantly  increased  by 
the  addition  of  new  arrivals  from  Africa.8 

But  aside  from  differences  in  native  talent  and  the  length 
of  the  period  of  domestication  of  the  Negroes  brought  to 
America,  there  were  other  forces  at  work  tending  to  bring 
about  a  differentiation  within  the  Negro  group.  Such 
things  as  climate,  occupations,  types  of  people  in  the  dif 
ferent  regions  or  colonies,  afforded  the  black  man  unequal 
opportunities  for  assimilating  the  white  man's  culture.  Di 
versity  in  customs,  sentiments,  racial  heredity,  and  religious 
belief  made  differences  in  his  treatment.  The  differences  in 
climate  and  consequently  in  occupations  in  various  sections 
of  the  country,  made  a  difference  in  his  work.  The  wide 
variety  of  conditions  naturally  produced  a  great  difference 
in  the  rate  at  which  the  Negroes  acquired  the  outward 
forms  of  English  culture. 

The  relative  numbers  of  the  Negroes  and  whites  varied 
widely  in  various  sections  of  the  country.  In  most  of  the 
northern  sections  the  proportionate  number  of  Negroes  was 
never  large.9  As  a  result,  they  came  more  into  contact 
with  the  white  people  and  consequently  their  opportunity 
to  assimilate  the  white  man's  culture  was  superior  to  the 
opportunity  of  those  Negroes  whose  lot  fell  in  sections  of 
the  country  where  the  proportion  of  Negroes  to  whites  was 
greater.  The  negative  side  of  the  proposition  is  of  equal 
importance.  Where  the  number  of  Negroes  was  small,  they 

8J.  S.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Caro 
lina,  pp.  56-57. 

•"For  the  most  part,  only  one  or  two  negroes  were  owned  by  any 
person."  B.  C.  Steiner,  A  History  of  Slavery  in  Connecticut,  p.  21. 


170  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

had  not  the  same  opportunity  to  associate  with  one  another 
and  so  did  not  have  the  opportunity  to  develop  and  per 
petuate  their  African  traditions  and  culture.  The  Negroes 
more  rapidly  in  some  sections  than  in  others,  therefore, 
simply  because  of  differences  in  numbers,  threw  off  the  lan 
guage  and  traditions  of  Africa  and  took  on  the  language 
and  customs  of  their  masters. 

Another  differentiating  factor  among  the  slaves,  was  the 
lack  of  uniformity  among  the  slaveholders  themselves. 
While  as  a  class  the  slaveholders  represented  the  educa 
tional,  moral,  economic,  intellectual,  and  social  aristocracy ; 
and  stood  for  all  that  was  best  in  American  life,  they  were 
by  no  means  all  of  the  same  high  type.  The  slave  in  the 
household  of  a  wealthy,  educated,  and  refined  gentleman 
had  a  vastly  better  opportunity  than  did  the  slave  in  the 
household  of  the  ignorant  and  the  vicious.10  In  some  cases, 
at  least,  the  slaves  were  given  some  education,  taught  the 
religion  of  their  masters  and  had  some  opportunity  for  as 
sociation  with  the  white  people.11  In  other  cases  they  were 
denied  these  things  or  had  no  opportunity  to  secure  them. 

Again,  some  slaves  early  received  their  freedom.  This 
was  the  case  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  At  a  later  period, 
it  was  especially  the  case  in  the  North  where  slavery  was 
not  the  profitable  economic  institution  that  it  proved  to  be 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  actual  number  freed 

w  Frances  A.  Kemble,  Journal  of  a  Residence  on  a  Georgian  Planta 
tion,  p.  24.  Ballagh,  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  pp. 
97  if. 

11  Susan  D.  Smedes,  A  Southern  Planter,  p.  40.  Speaking  of  Lunsford 
Lane,  J.  S.  Bassett,  The  Anti-Slavery  Leaders  in  North  Carolina,  pp. 
61-62,  says  that  "His  parents  .  .  .  had  been  kept  in  the  town  for  family 
service,  and  thus  their  offspring  had  opportunities  beyond  the  other 
negroes.  Lunsford  early  learned  to  read  and  write  .  .  .  Many  men  of 
political  prominence  visited  his  master's  house,  and  from  waiting  on 
these  he  acquired  much  general  information.  .  .  ." 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  171 

was,  of  course,  greater  in  the  South.  There  grew  up,  there 
fore,  a  body  of  free  Negroes  who,  though  their  condition 
on  the  whole  seems  often  not  to  have  been  superior  to  that 
of  the  slaves,12  were  free  to  follow  their  own  inclinations  as 
to  employment,  the  accumulation  of  property,  associations, 
and  the  like. 

A  still  more  profound  difference  was  that  between  the 
condition  of  the  town  and  plantation  slaves.  In  the  for 
mer  situation,  they  were  brought  into  continual  contact 
and  association  with  various  members  of  the  opposite  race.13 
The  plantation  Negroes,  on  the  other  hand,  were  isolated 

12 "...  Except  for  natural  procreation,  the  principal  additions  or 
recruits  to  this  class  [free  Negroes]  throughout  this  period  were  the 
result  of  illegitimacy.  There  was  no  tendency  to  attribute  to  a  few 
negroes  and  mulattoes  of  such  low  origin  any  higher  social  standing  than 
that  occupied  by  more  than  99  per  cent  of  their  race  and  color.  .  .  ." 
Russell,  The  Free  Negro  in  Virginia,  p.  126.  However,  ".  .  .  before 
the  time  of  the  active  propagation  of  the  antislavery  doctrines,  there 
existed  little  if  any  prejudice  against  the  education  of  free  colored 
persons."  Ibid.,  p.  137.  See,  also,  pp.  51,  76. 

".  .  .  before  1780  a  negro  even  if  free  was  far  from  being  as  free 
as  a  white  man.  .  .  ."  Turner,  The  Negro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  113. 
See,  also,  p.  127. 

".  .  .  Free  negroes  were  despised  rather  than  hated,  .  .  .  and  though 
some  gained  and  held  a  place  of  comparative  comfort  and  security,  the 
mass  came  under  the  obloquy  attached  to  slavery  without  participation 
in  the  benefits  enjoyed  by  the  average  bondsman."  E.  Ingle,  Southern 
Sidelights,  p.  285.  See,  also,  p.  279.  See,  also,  Williams,  History  of 
the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  pp.  315,  286;  Cooley,  A  Study  of 
Slavery  in  New  Jersey,  pp.  45  if.;  Steiner,  A  History  of  Slavery  in 
Connecticut,  p.  23,  f.  n.;  J.  S.  Bassett,  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North 
Carolina,  pp.  34  if.;  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of 
North  Carolina,  pp.  66  ff. 

13  These  slaves  "who  thus  came  under  the  religious  influence  of  their 
masters  and  mistresses"  were  most  likely  the  ones  first  converted  to  Chris 
tianity.  See  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North 
Carolina,  pp.  48-50.  See,  also,  E.  Ingle,  The  Negro  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  p.  19. 


172  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

from  the  cultured  race  and  in  continual  association  with 
other  Negroes.  They  did  not  get  into  touch  with  the  whites. 
They  retained,  therefore,  the  language,  the  customs,  and 
the  traditions  of  their  African  home,  for  years  and  gener 
ations  after  the  more  fortunately  situated  Negroes  had  cast 
them  off. 

.  .  .  The  house  servants  in  Charleston  or  Savan 
nah,  in  close  personal  and  confidential  touch  with  the 
master  and  mistress,  and  with  opportunities  to  acquire 
a  certain  degree  of  book-learning,  and  much  more  val 
uable  culture  in  morality  and  refinement,  were  quite 
different  from  the  workers  in  the  rice-fields  or  among 
the  canes,  many  of  whom  were  steeped  in  the  supersti 
tion  of  barbarism  and  clung  to  African  gibberish  fifty 
years  after  they  had  passed  from  the  decks  of  the 
slaver.14 

In  the  back  country  the  contact  was  more  intimate  than 
on  the  larger  plantations  and,  while  not  so  varied,  was  fre 
quently  more  effective  even  than  the  city  life. 

In  North  Carolina,  and  elsewhere,  no  doubt,  it  was 
noticeable  that  slavery,  .  .  .  was  of  a  milder  type  in 
the  western  counties.  Here  the  farms  were  small. 
Slave-owners  had  but  few  slaves.  With  these  they 
mingled  freely.  They  worked  with  them  in  the  fields, 
plowing  side  by  side.  The  slave  cabins  were  in  the 
same  yard  with  the  master's  humble  home.  Slave  chil 
dren  and,  indeed,  slave  families  were  directly  under  the 
eye  of  the  master,  and  better  still,  of  the  mis 
tress.  .  .  ,15 

Finally,  and  possibly  of  greatest  importance,  was  the 
occupational  differentiation  among  the  members  of  the  Ne- 

14  Ingle,  Southern  Sidelights,  p.  964.  See,  also,  P.  A.  Bruce,  The  Plan 
tation  Negro  a-s  a  Freeman,  p.  74. 

"Bassett,  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  8.  See,  also, 
Dodge,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  57,  p.  31. 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  173 

gro  group.  Some  were  house  and  body  servants,  some 
were  mechanics,  some  were  laborers  and  field  hands.  The 
first  had  the  opportunity  of  intimate  daily  association  with 
the  master's  family.16 

The  second  had  not  only  that  association,  but  the  educa 
tion  and  training  necessary  to  make  of  them  efficient  work 
men. 

.  .  .  But  the  superior  slave  class,  and  the  one  that 
represented  all  that  was  best  in  Negro  development, 
was  the  mechanics  who  were  in  most  cases  conspicuous 
for  their  ability  and  achievements,  for  slavery  included 
among  its  mechanical  industries  every  form  of  handi 
craft,  and  as  the  ability  to  acquire  a  mechanical  art 
carries  with  it  a  fair  degree  of  intelligence,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  negro  artisans,  who  were  carefully  se 
lected  for  their  special  lines  of  work,  should  have  de 
veloped  characters  superior  to  their  less  fortunate  fel 
lows.17 

The  third  class  came  little  into  contact  with  the  whites.18 
On  the  plantation,  they  might  never  see  the  master  and 
seldom  any  white  man  from  one  year's  end  to  another.  On 
the  larger  plantations  and  in  Jamaica,  it  was  even  possible 
for  the  slaves  to  see  little  more  of  the  white  man  than  did 
their  ancestors  in  Africa.  On  these  larger  plantations,  the 
institution  was  a  more  strictly  economic  one  in  contrast  to 
the  more  patriarchal  type  it  assumed  in  the  back  country 
and  on  the  smaller  plantations. 

""I  should  tell  you  that  Aleck's  parents  and  kindred  have  always 
been  about  the  house  of  the  overseer,  and  in  daily  habits  of  intercourse 
with  him  and  his  wife;  and  wherever  this  is  the  case  the  effect  of  in 
voluntary  education  is  evident  in  the  improved  intelligence  of  the  de 
graded  race."  Kemble,  Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation,  p.  24.  See, 
also,  W.  H.  Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  p.  15. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  15-16.     See,  also,  p.  67. 

18  Ibid.,  p.  15. 


174  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

For  these  reasons  and  perhaps  for  others — because  of 
superior  natural  talent,  superior  advantages,  superior  ed 
ucation  and  training,  because  of  their  freedom — there  was 
a  separation  within  the  Negro  group  that  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Negroes'  American  life.  Some  of  the 
classes  thus  formed  were  isolated  geographically  and  so 
cially  and  found  their  chief  or  only  associations  with  others 
of  their  kind.  Other  more  fortunate  classes  had  the 
advantage  of  association  and  contact  with  the  cultured 
race. 

In  the  ranks  of  the  favored  classes,  there  was  a  pre 
ponderance  of  mulattoes.  From  their  first  appearance,  and 
increasingly  as  the  system  developed  and  the  control  of  eco 
nomic  forces  allowed  a  body  of  trained  house  servants  to 
grow,  the  mulattoes  formed  the  house  and  body  servants. 
When  not  all  could  be  employed  in  house  work,  they  were 
most  frequently  the  ones  chosen  to  learn  the  trades.  They 
were  the  ones  employed  in  skilled  work.  In  any  case,  they 
came  into  more  close,  constant,  and  intimate  association 
with  the  white  people.  This  was  more  especially  the  case 
as  the  institution  became  older  and  the  number  of  slaves 
increased  to  where  a  more  complete  division  of  labor  was 
possible.  There  are  a  number  of  circumstances  each  suf 
ficient  to  account  in  part  for  the  excess  of  mulattoes  in  the 
favored  classes. 

In  the  first  place,  it  was  generally  believed  throughout  the 
slavery  period  that  the  mulattoes  were  superior  in  intelli 
gence  to  the  black  slaves.19  In  spite  of  their  inferior  bodily 
strength,  they  commanded  a  higher  price  in  the  slave  mar 
ket.20  Because  of  this  belief — the  truth  or  falsity  of  the 
belief  is  not  here  in  question — they  were  most  often  chosen 

19  Kemble,  Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation,  p.  240. 

20  Ray  Stannard  Baker,  Following  the  Color  Line,  p.  164. 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  175 

for  the  tasks  that  required  an  exercise  of  skill  and  intelli 
gence.21  Thomas  22  says  that  "the  Negroes  coarse  in 
speech  and  crude  in  action  were  assigned  to  labor  in  the 
fields  and  forest.  .  .  ."  After  speaking  of  the  class  of 
domestic  servants  he  adds: 

.  .  .  Another  equally  intelligent,  but  more  self-reliant 
class,  was  the  slaves  employed  in  portage  in  commer 
cial  centers,  together  with  many  others  engaged  in 
occupations  which  required  little  supervision,  but  a 
fair  degree  of  personal  intelligence  and  practical  judg 
ment  to  perform  rightly. 

Because  of  the  presumption  of  the  mulattoes'  superior  in 
telligence  the  industrial  as  opposed  to  the  common  labor 
classes  were,  so  far  as  the  number  of  mulattoes  allowed  a 
choice  to  be  made,  mulatto  classes. 

In  the  early  days  some  few,  at  least,  of  the  mulattoes 
were  children  of  white  women.23  Where  this  was  the  case 
the  child  had  the  advantage  of  a  white  mother's  care  and 
training  and  this,  even  of  the  type  of  white  woman  who 
gave  birth  to  a  mulatto  child,  was  doubtless  superior  to 
the  training  that  could  be  given  a  child  by  the  Negro 
mother.  Consequently  the  child,  other  things  equal,  would 
be  somewhat  superior  to  the  child  of  a  black  mother.  More- 

M"The  fact  that  the  majority  of  those  entrusted  with  responsibility 
and  of  those  who  succeeded  best  in  acquiring  knowledge,  both  of  letters 
and  of  industrial  arts,  during  slavery  were  mulattoes,  and  the  fact  that 
the  majority  of  those  of  the  present  who  have  made  creditable  attain 
ments  are  of  mixed  blood,  go  to  prove  that  a  mixture  of  white  blood 
has  had  much  to  do  in  the  matter  of  higher  ambition,  mental  force,  and 
efficiency  of  the  talented  few.  .  .  ."  C.  H.  McCord,  The  American  Negro 
as  a  Defective,  Dependent  and  Delinquent,  p.  50. 

22  The  American  Negro,  pp.  15,  16. 

23  See  pp.  152  ff.  above. 


176  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

over,  as  the  status  of  the  child  followed  that  of  the  mother, 
it  would,  in  most  cases,  ultimately  become  a  free  man  or 
woman  with  whatever  advantages  went  with  the  status. 
Such  ancestry,  consequently,  tended  to  increase  the  percent 
age  of  mulattoes  in  the  free  Negro  group. 

In  some  cases,  there  existed  a  paternal  or  other  blood 
relationship  between  the  mulatto  slave  and  the  master. 
How  numerous  such  cases  were,  it  is  wholly  impossible  to 
say ;  24  but  where  such  relationships  existed,  the  individual 
was  doubtless  favored  over  other  individuals  of  the  servile 
class.25  He  was  likely  to  receive  his  freedom,  generally  with 
that  of  his  mother  and  often  with  some  property  for  a  start 
in  life.26  But  whether  or  not  such  individuals  went  to  swell 
the  ranks  of  the  free  Negro  group,  they  were,  by  heredity  27 

21  See  p.  139  above. 

26  "Indeed  it  was  notorious  that  freemen  sold  their  own  mulatto  chil 
dren  born  in  Virginia."     J.  P.  Dunn,  Indiana,  p.  223.     This  was  prob 
ably  more  notorious  than   accurate.     There  were   doubtless   such  cases 
but  the  stories  that  the  slave-owning  class  made  this  a  practice  are  no 
longer  a  part  of  the  mental  furnishings  of  any  one  of  standard  de 
velopment.  ".  .  .  Everywhere  there  were  usually  a  number  of  prosperous 
free  negroes.     Most  of  them  were  mulattoes,  not  a  few  of  them  were 
set  free  by  their  fathers  and  thus  they  fell  easily  into  the  life  around 
them.    This  mulatto  class  was  partly  due  to  the  easy  sexual  relations  be 
tween  the  races.     A  white  man  who  kept  a  negro  mistress  ordinarily 
lost  no  standing  in  society  on  account  of  it.    The  habit,  though  not  com 
mon,  was  not  unusual.     Often  the  mistress  was  a  slave,  and  thus  there 
were  frequent  emancipations  either  by  gift  or  by  purchase  of  liberty, 
till  the  stricter  spirit  of  the  laws  after  1831  checked  it."    Bassett,  Slavery 
in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  pp.  45-46. 

29  See  Booker  T.  Washington,  Story  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  pp.  227  ff. 

27  So  far  as  a  sex  relation  exists  anywhere  between  a  master  and  a 
subject  race  it  is  always  the  choicest  females  who  are  so  honored.     The 
statement  in  the  text,  therefore,  refers  to  the  colored  side  of  the  mu 
lattoes'  ancestry.     There  is  no  implication  of  or  denial  of  fundamental 
racial  superiority.     Their  mothers  were  the  choicest  individuals  of  their 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  177 

and  training,  the  best  specimens  of  the  race  and  raised  the 
percentage  of  mulattoes  in  the  favored  classes. 

But  the  most  important  reason  that  the  mulatto  was 
chosen  in  preference  to  the  Negro  for  any  employment  that 
brought  him  into  association  with  the  master  family  was 
the  fact  that  he  was  a  better  looking  animal.28  He  made 
a  better  appearance.29  For  this  reason  he  was  selected  as 
the  house  and  body  servant.  This  favored  class  of  domes 
tic  servants  "were  usually  bright  and  intelligent  negroes 
who,  through  contact  and  sympathetic  supervision,  acquired 
in  many  instances  a  training  in  manners  and  methods  of 
incomparable  grace  and  efficiency."  30 

The  Negroes  everywhere  made  distinctions  among  them-N 
selves.31  The  free  Negroes  recognized  the  difference  between 
themselves  and  the  slaves.  The  town  Negroes  considered 
themselves  superior  to  the  country  Negroes.  In  the  same 
way,  the  house  servants  held  themselves  superior  to  the  field 
hands.  The  basis  on  which  the  distinctions  were  most  usu 
ally  made  was  that  of  color.  The  free  Negroes  were  very 
frequently  mulattoes.32  The  house  servants  also  were  fre- 

28  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  "Racial  Problems  and  the  Congress  of 
Races,"  Contemporary  Review,  Vol.  100,  p.  154. 

28  "She  was  quite  indifferent  to  the  public  opinion  that  required  only 
fine-looking,  thoroughly  trained  servants  about  the  establishment  of  a 
gentleman."  Smedes,  A  Southern  Planter,  p.  65. 

30  Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  p.  15.  ".  .  .  The  mulattoes  were  em 
ployed  in  towns.  ...  I  have  seen  great  plantations  with  not  one  of  them 
— all  black."  Bassett,  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  90, 
quoting  a  correspondent,  apparently  with  approval. 

"The  various  opprobrious  epithets  applied  to  members  of  the  race, 
and  to  the  opposite  race  as  well,  have  always  been  most  widely  used 
by  the  Negroes  themselves.  "Crackers,"  "twisters,"  "niggers,"  "burr- 
heads,"  "mule-niggers,"  "polka  dots"  and  the  like,  if  not  invented  by 
Negroes  were  and  are  more  often  used  by  them  than  by  the  opposite  race. 
See  The  Chicago  Defender,  Editorial  "So  Say  We,"  10-9-1915. 

82  In  1860,  for  e.g.,  2,554  of  the  3,441   free  Negroes  were  mulattoes. 


178  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

quently  of  mixed-blood  and  the  same  was  true  to  a  greater 
extent  of  the  town  Negroes  than  of  the  plantation  Negroes 
and  lower-class  slaves.  The  mulatto  slaves  held  themselves 
superior  to  the  black  slaves  and  claimed  privileges  on  ac 
count  of  color.  The  white  man  considered  the  mulatto 
superior  to  the  black  man  and  the  mulatto,  taking  over  the 
white  man's  way  of  thinking,  claimed  membership  in  the 
superior  ranks  on  account  of  his  relative  absence  of  color. 

The  mulatto  woman,  Sally,  accosted  me  again  to 
day  and  begged  that  she  might  be  put  to  some  other 
than  field  labor.  Supposing  she  felt  herself  unequal 
to  it,  I  asked  her  some  questions,  but  the  principal 
reason  she  urged  for  her  promotion  to  some  less  labor 
ious  kind  of  work  was,  that  hoeing  in  the  field  was  so 
hard  to  her  on  "account  of  her  color"  and  she  therefore 
petitions  to  be  allowed  to  learn  a  trade.  I  was  much 
puzzled  at  this  reason  for  her  petition,  but  was  pres 
ently  made  to  understand  that,  being  a  mulatto,  she 
considered  field  labor  a  degradation ;  her  white  bas 
tardy  appearing  to  her  a  title  to  consideration  in  my 
eyes.  The  degradation  of  these  people  is  very  complete, 
for  they  have  accepted  the  contempt  of  their  masters 
to  that  degree  that  they  profess,  and  really  seem  to 
feel  it  for  themselves,  and  the  faintest  admixture  of 
white  blood  in  their  black  veins  appears  at  once,  by 
common  consent  of  their  own  race,  to  raise  them  in 
the  scale  of  humanity.  I  had  not  much  sympathy  for 
this  petition.33 

While  the  distinctions  among  the  members  of  the  race  on 
the  basis  of  color  were  everywhere  made,  the  "color  line" 
was  most  carefully  and  rigidly  drawn  where  there  existed 

In  New  Orleans  7,357  of  the  9,084  free  Negroes  were  mixed-bloods. 
Elsewhere  the  proportion  was  usually  not  so  high  but  was  everywhere 
marked.  See  notes  46,  47,  p.  116  above. 

M  Kemble,  Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation,  p.  194. 


The  Growth  of  the  Mulatto  Class  179 

the  largest  body  of  free  Negroes.     Evans  says :  34 

I  was  told  by  an  intelligent  light-coloured  woman 
whom  I  met  in  Alabama,  who  was  married  to  a  well-to- 
do  mulatto  there,  and  who  came  from  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  that  in  her  early  days  in  that  city  she 
had  no  black  associates,  and  that  between  the  light- 
coloured  and  black  there  was  a  gulf  fixed  similar  to 
that  separating  the  former  from  the  whites.  Later  in 
life  when  she  moved  into  Alabama  she  found  there  no 
such  class  distinctions  between  black  and  coloured. 
Her  ancestors  on  both  sides  had  been  freed  men  for 
two  generations,  the  family  owned  property,  and  had 
a  recognized  position  in  Charleston. 

Fannie  Jackson,  a  mulatto  who  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  Negro  woman  to  graduate  from  a  reputable  college, 
testifies  to  this  spirit  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  mu- 
lattoes.35 

So  I  went  out  to  service.  Oh,  the  hue  and  cry  there 
was,  when  I  went  out  to  live!  Even  my  aunt  spoke  of 
it;  she  had  a  home  to  offer  me;  but  the  "slavish"  ele 
ment  was  so  strong  in  me  that  /  make  myself  a  servant. 
Ah,  how  those  things  cut  me  then!  But  I  knew  I  was 
right,  and  I  kept  straight  on. 

Frederick  Douglass  testifies  to  the  same  fact36  as  does 
Mr.  DuBois,37  Edward  Blyden  38  and,  naively  or  otherwise, 

"Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  p.  93. 
See,  also,  Ray  Stannard  Baker,  "The  Tragedy  of  the  Mulatto,"  The 
American  Magazine,  Vol.  65,  p.  588. 

86  J.  W.  Cromwell,  The  Negro  in  American  History,  p.  213. 

"Life  and  Times,  p.  458. 

37 ".  .  .  The  thing  that  makes  the  mulatto  especially  useful  is  that, 
with  the  white  man,  he  shares  the  pride  of  his  white  blood  and  is  less 
likely  than  the  black  to  submit  to  artificial  distinctions  of  race  where 
nature  has  bridged  them.  .  ."  Crisis,  Editorial,  9-1913. 

WE.  W.  Blyden,  Christianity,  Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,  p.  18. 


180  The  Mulatto  In  the  United  States 

most  of  the  other  Negroes  who  have  become  articulate.39 
The  white  man  always  has  considered  the  mulatto  superior 
to  the  black  Negro ;  and  the  mulatto,  taking  over  the  white 
man's  way  of  thinking,  considered  himself  superior  and  at 
tributed  the  superiority  to  the  fact  of  his  mixed  blood.  He 
formed  exclusive  organizations  and  claimed  superiority  on 
the  basis  of  color. 

The  Negroes  in  general  accepted  the  assumption  of  supe 
riority  on  the  part  of  the  mulattoes  and,  like  the  mulatto 
and  the  white  man,  attributed  the  observed  superiority  to 
the  admixture  of  white  blood.40  Speaking  of  the  boat  songs 
of  a  certain  river  plantation  group,  Miss  Kemble  says : 41 

One  of  their  songs  displeased  me  not  a  little,  for  it 
embodied  the  opinion  that  "twenty-six  black  girls  not 
make  mulatto  yellow  girl";  and  I  told  them  I  did  not 
like  it  they  have  omitted  it  since.  This  desperate  ten 
dency  to  despise  and  undervalue  their  own  race  and 
color,  which  is  one  of  the  very  worst  results  of  their 
abject  condition,  is  intolerable  to  me. 

The  ideal  of  the  Negro  was  thus  the  light-colored  man. 
He  envied  him  his  color 42  and  his  superiority.  Often  he 

88  Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  pp.  186,  408,  407. 

T.  T.  Fortune,  "Place  in  American  Life,"  in  Washington,  The  Negro 
Problem,  pp.  227,  226. 

The  Boston  Reliance,  3-13-1915. 

The  Kansas  City  Herald,  2-13-1915. 

The  Kentucky  (Louisville}  Reporter,  1-23-1915. 

The  Washington  Sun,  4-9-1915. 

40  Patience  Pennington,  A   Woman  Rice  Planter,  p.  235. 

"Residence  on  a  Georgian  Plantation,  p.  219.  See,  also,  Pennington, 
A  Woman  Rice  Planter,  p.  387;  and  Blyden  as  quoted  in  the  Crisis, 
9-1913,  pp.  229-30. 

0  Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  p.  67. 

Blyden,  Christianity,  Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,  pp.  24-25,  89. 

Baker,  American  Magazine,  Vol.  65,  p.  589. 


The  Growth  of  Hit  Mulatto  Class  181 

hated  him  for  his  ambition  to   escape  from   the  race  and 
align  himself  with  the  whites.43 

Once  started,  the  mulatto  class  tended  to  perpetuate  it 
self.  However  much  the  Negro  hated  the  exclusive  mulatto, 
every  black  man  was  anxious  to  gain  admission  to  the  mu 
latto  class.  Admission,  in  the  absence  of  mixed-blood,  was 
most  readily  obtained  by  marriage  into  the  group.  Con 
sequently,  it  was  the  almost  universal  desire  of  the  Negro 
to  marry  light-colored  women  44  and,  to  the  extent  of  their 
importance,  they  were  successful  in  doing  so.45  A  roll  of 
the  Negroes  who  have  married  white  women  or  light-col 
ored  mulattoes  would  include  the  great  majority  of  the 
men  who  have  gained  any  distinction  either  within  or  with 
out  the  race. 

Thus  by  association,  education,  and  tradition,  the  mu 
lattoes  came  to  be  superior  men.  They  had  white  blood 
and  because  of  their  white  blood  they  had  superior  advan 
tages.  The  white  man  considered  them  superior  and,  as  a 
consequence  of  this,  they  considered  themselves  superior.46 
This  gave  them  a  confidence  in  themselves  that  the  black 
Negroes  did  not  have.  They  felt  more  important.  Among 
the  Negro  group  they  enjoyed  a  prestige  because  of  their 

43  "The  same  feeling  [caste  feeling  of  white  superiority]  is  frequently 
met  with  among  sober-minded  blacks,  who,  much  to  one's  surprise  some 
times,  are  found  to  resent  the  ambitious  attempts  of  their  fellows,  gen 
erally  mulattoes,  to  rise  above  their  own  race  and  align  themselves  with 
the  whites."  B.  W.  Smith,  The  Color  Line,  pp.  173-74.  See,  also,  Mon 
roe  Work,  "The  Passing  Tradition  and  the  African  Civilization,"  The 
Journal  of  Negro  History,  Vol.  1,  Number  1,  p.  35. 

"Baker,  The  American  Magazine,  Vol.  65,  p.  589. 

45  Bruce,  The  Plantation  Negro  as  a  Freeman,  pp.  143-44. 

48  "In  discussions  of  the  race  problem  there  is  one  factor  of  supreme 
importance  which  has  been  so  far  disregarded  ...  to  wit,  the  opinion 
or  idea  which  a  race  has  of  itself  and  the  influence  exerted  by  this 
idea."  A.  Fouiltee,  "Race  from  the  Sociological  Standpoint,"  Inter- 
Racial  Problems,  pp.  24  IT. 


182  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

mixed  blood,  and  this  reacted  to  further  inflate  the  mu- 
lattoes'  idea  of  themselves.47  So,  entirely  aside  from  any 
question  of  racial  superiority,  the  mulatto  is  and  always  has 
been  the  superior  man.48 

47  See  Raymond  Patterson,  The  Negro  and  His  Needs,  p.  40. 

48  See,  E.  B.  Reuter,  "The  Superiority  of  the  Mulatto,"  American  Jour 
nal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  23,  pp.  83-106. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  LEADING  MEN  OF  THE  NEGRO  RACE 

IT  has  been  pointed  out  frequently  both  by  the  friends 
and  the  critics  of  the  race,  that  the  Negro  in  America 
has  not  as  yet  produced  an  individual  entitled  to  rank 
among  the  world's  geniuses.  Kelly  Miller  x  has  said  that, 
judged  by  European  standards,  the  race  has  produced  no 
man  of  even  secondary  rank.  Mr.  DuBois  would  seem  to 
agree  that  this  is  a  fair  statement  of  fact.2  Indeed,  it 
seems  to  be  claimed  nowhere  by  serious  students  that  the 
race  has  produced  any  man  whose  achievements  have  not 
been  surpassed  by  scores  of  men  of  a  different  racial  ex 
traction. 

Whatever  may  be  the  amount  of  truth  in  this  generally 
accepted  belief — and  there  is  no  intention  here  to  prove  or 
disprove  it,  nor  to  affirm  nor  deny  it — it  is  certainly  true 
that  the  race  has  differentiated  during  its  life  in  America. 
The  difference  separating  the  extremes  within  the  race  has 
become  very  great.  Some  individuals  have,  perhaps,  not 
greatly  advanced  beyond  the  standards  of  life  of  their  Af 
rican  ancestors ;  others  have  in  all  essential  respects  meas 
ured  up  to  the  best  standards  of  modern  civilized  life.  It 
is  with  these  latter  individuals,  quite  regardless  of  the  de 
gree  of  their  absolute  native  ability,  with  whom  we  are  here 
concerned.  It  is  not  a  question  of  genius  or  even  of  emi- 

lRace  Adjustment,  p.  188. 

•W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  "The  Advance  Guard  of  the  Race,"  The  Book- 
lover's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  p.  3. 

183 


184  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

nence;  it  is  a  question  of  relative  superiority  and  of  lead 
ership.  It  is  relative  and  not  absolute  superiority  that  de 
termines  the  value  of  the  individual  in  a  social  situation. 

Quite  aside,  then,  from  all  question  of  genius,  the  Negro 
race  in  America  has  produced  a  number  of  individuals  who 
in  spite  of,  or  because  of,  their  black  blood  have  reached  a 
level  of  achievement  well  above  the  average  of  either  race. 
Judged  by  any  fair  standard  there  have  been  and  are  to-day 
Negroes  who  deserve  to  be  ranked  as  exceptional  men  in 
that  their  accomplishments  are  well  above  the  level  of  the 
accomplishments  of  other  individuals  of  their  group.3  It 
is  true  that  the  number  is  not  great.  Compared  with  the 
great  number  of  the  race  it  must  even  be  admitted  that  the 
number  is  pitifully  small.  But  that  there  are  successful 
men,  men  of  ability  and  of  talent,  among  the  race  is  not  to 
be  denied.  They  are  to  be  found  in  greater  or  lesser  num 
bers  in  all  the  various  lines  of  human  endeavor:  in  indus 
trial  and  commercial  pursuits ;  in  the  learned  professions ; 
in  literature,  art,  and  music ;  wherever,  in  short,  are  to  be 
found  the  men  of  other  races. 

When  the  existence  of  such  prominent  men  is  pointed  out 
it  is  frequently  asserted  that  they  are  not  Negroes  but  mu- 
lattoes.  "Although,"  says  Ingalls,4  "more  than  two  hun 
dred  thousand  enlisted  in  the  Union  armies,  no  full-blood 
negro  holds  a  commission  in  the  army  or  navy  and  in  the 
militia  their  organization  is  distinct."  "We  .  .  .  find," 
says  Stone,  B  "that  where  the  Negro  participates  to  any  ex 
tent  in  the  administration  of  affairs  .  .  .  the  race  is  almost 
invariably  represented  solely  by  its  mulatto  type."  "Appar 
ently,  the  mulatto  as  a  whole  is  superior  to  the  pure  African 

3DuBois,  Booklover's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  p.  4. 

4  John  J.  Ingalls,  "Always  a  Problem,"  Chicago  Tribune,  5-28-1893. 

8  A.  F.  Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  p.  27. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  185 

Negro,"  says  Chancellor  David  Starr  Jordan.6  "Ninety 
per  cent  of  all  the  leaders  of  the  race  are  the  offspring  of  the 
Caucasian,"  says  Holm.7  Belin  says  that  "The  so-called 
'negroes,'  who  have  in  any  way  distinguished  themselves 
above  their  fellows,  are  not  full-blood  negroes,  but  half- 
breeds."  8  "The  recognized  leaders  of  the  race  are  almost 
invariably  persons  of  mixed  blood,  and  the  qualities  which 
have  made  them  leaders  are  derived  certainly  in  part  and 
perhaps  mainly  from  their  white  ancestry." 

Shufeldt 10  quotes  Keane  as  saying  that  "No  full-blood 
Negro  ever  has  been  distinguished  as  a  man  of  science,  a 
poet,  or  an  artist,  and  the  fundamental  equality  claimed  for 
him  by  ignorant  philanthropists  is  belied  by  the  whole  his 
tory  of  the  race  throughout  the  historic  period."  To  the 
same  point  Dr.  Carl  Vogt  n  says  that : 

As  a  proof  in  favor  of  the  artistic  and  scientific  ca 
pacity  of  the  Negro,  we  find  cited  in  nearly  all  the 
works  the  instance  of  Mr.  Lille  Geoffray  of  Marti 
nique,  an  engineer  and  mathematician  and  correspond 
ing  member  of  the  French  Academy.  The  fact  is  that 
the  mathematical  performances  of  the  above  gentleman 
were  of  such  a  nature  that,  had  he  been  born  in  Ger 
many  of  white  parents,  he  might,  perhaps,  have  quali 
fied  as  a  mathematical  teacher  in  a  middle-class  school, 
or  engineer  at  a  railway ;  but  having  been  born  in  Mar- 

a  "Biological  Effects  of  Race  Movements,"  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Vol.  87,  pp.  267-70. 

7  J.  J.  Holm,  Race  Assimilation  or  the  Fading  of  the  Leopard's  Spots, 
p.  279. 

•H.  E.  Belin,  "A  Southern  View  of  Slavery,"  American  Journal  of 
Sociology,  Vol.  13,  p.  518. 

9  Encyclopedia  Britannlca:   Negro. 

10  R.  W.   Shufeldt,   The  Negro:  A   Menace   to  American  Civilization, 
p.  43. 

11  Lectures  on  Man,  pp.  192-93. 


186  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

tinique  of  colored  parents,  he  shone  like  a  one-eyed  man 
among  the  totally  blind.  M.  Lille  Geoffray,  besides, 
was  not  a  pure  Negro,  but  a  mulatto. 

By  other  writers,  all  this  is  flatly  contradicted.  The 
equality  of  races  is  stoutly  asserted  and  the  superiority  of 
the  mulatto  to  the  full-blooded  Negro  as  stoutly  denied. 
Mr.  Washington  on  a  number  of  occasions  stated  his  belief 
in  the  equality  of  the  Negro  to  the  mulatto.  The  A.  M.  E. 
Church  Review *•?  says  editorially  that  ".  .  .  we  colored 
people  can  never  subscribe  to  the  doctrine  of  the  superi 
ority  of  the  mulatto  over  the  black  element  in  brain  power." 
But  of  all  those  who  have  expressed  their  opinion,  Mr.  Du- 
Bois  seems  to  be  the  most  emphatic  and  the  most  extreme 
in  his  assertions  on  this  subject.  "If  we  study  cases  of 
ability  and  goodness  and  talent  among  the  American  Ne 
groes,  we  shall,"  he  says,  "have  difficulty  in  laying  down 
any  clear  thesis  as  to  effect  of  amalgamation.  As  a  mat 
ter  of  historic  fact  the  colored  people  of  America  have  pro 
duced  as  many  remarkable  black  men  as  mulattoes."  13 

The  purpose  here  is  not  to  evaluate  the  work  done  by 
these  remarkable  men.  It  is  not  intended  to  determine  what 
place  they  do  or  should  occupy  as  compared  with  success 
ful  white  men  in  similar  lines  of  endeavor.  It  is  not  even 
intended  to  show  in  how  far  they  have  risen  above  the  aver 
age  of  their  fellows.  The  purpose  is  merely  to  determine, 
on  the  basis  of  the  most  complete  and  representative  lists 
of  exceptional  Negroes  that  have  been  compiled,  in  how  far 
they  are  black  men  and  in  how  far  they  are  men  of  mixed 
\  blood.  It  is  the  assumption  and  the  assertion  that  there 
are  as  many  black  men  as  mulattoes  among  the  exceptional 
men  of  the  race  that  we  propose  to  submit  to  the  test  of 

"October  1915,  p.  133. 

18  DuBois,  Booklover's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  p.  15. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  187 

cases  that  Mr.  DuBois  suggests.14 

In  all  other  countries  where  a  mulatto  group  exists  along 
side  of  a  group  of  unmixed  blood,  there  seems  to  be  a  pre 
ponderance  of  mulattoes  among  the  gifted  individuals  of 
the  race.  In  Jamaica  the  educated  and  professional  classes 
of  the  race  are  mulattoes.15  In  Haiti  the  ten  per  cent  of 
mixed-bloods  have  constituted  the  ruling  and  professional 
classes  since  the  massacre  of  the  French.16  In  South  Af 
rica  the  mulattoes  are  "the  intellectual  aristocracy  of  the 
dark-skinned  population."  17  In  Brazil  it  is  the  mixed- 
bloods  who  have  attained  to  a  degree  of  civilization,  while 
the  purer-blooded  natives  and  Negroes  seem  to  have  cast 
off,  partially  at  least,  the  degree  of  civilization  acquired  un 
der  the  regime  of  slavery.18  Elsewhere,  the  same  thing 
seems  to  be  true.19  The  mixed-bloods  in  every  racial  situa- 

14  There  is,  of  course,  no  intention  of  "proving"  by  such  a  method  any 
"thesis  as  to  the  effect  of  amalgamation."  The  effect  of  amalgamation 
is  a  biological  problem  with  which  we  are  not  here  concerned.  More 
over  it  is  not  susceptible  of  demonstration  by  the  means  that  Mr.  Du 
Bois  suggests.  It  is  the  final  assertion,  that  among  the  exceptional  men 
of  the  Negro  race  there  are  as  many  black  as  mulatto  men,  that  we 
propose  to  examine. 

"William  Thorp,  "How  Jamaica  Solves  the  Negro  Problem,"  World's 
Work,  Vol.  8,  pp.  4908-13. 

W.  P.  Livingstone,  "The  West  Indian  and  American  Negro,"  North 
American  Review,  Vol.  185,  p.  647. 

Stone,  Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem,  p.  27. 

18  H.  V.  H.  Prichard,  Where  Black  Rules  White,  pp.  80  ff. 

Earl  Finch,  "The  Effects  of  Racial  Miscegenation,"  Inter-Racial  Prob 
lems,  p.  110. 

17  H.  E.  S.  Freemantle,  The  New  Nation,  pp.  217-18.  See,  also,  M.  S. 
Evans,  Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa,  pp.  289-90.  filisee 
Reclus,  Africa,  Vol.  4,  p.  149. 

"Jean  Baptiste  de  Lacerda,  "The  Metis  or  Half-Breeds  of  Brazil," 
Inter-Racial  Problems,  pp.  380-82. 

19  Charles  E.  Woodruff,  "Some  Laws  of  Racial  and  Intellectual  Devel 
opment,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  3,  p.  175. 

Friedrich  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  1,  p.  397. 


188  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

tion  seem  to  have  risen,  as  a  group,  above  the  status  of  their 
darker  kin,  while  the  individuals  of  talent  who  have  appeared 
— the  individuals  who  have  made  some  conspicuous  success 
in  life — are,  with  rare  exception,  men  of  mixed  blood. 

Historically  the  same  thing  seems  to  hold  true.  Of  the 
names  of  Negroes  coming  down  to  us  from  the  past,  there 
is  a  preponderating  majority  of  men  of  mixed  blood  and  a 
scarcity,  almost  an  entire  absence,  of  men  of  unmixed  Ne 
gro  ancestry.  Alexandre  Dumas,  by  all  odds  the  most 
gifted  individual  whom  history  shows  to  have  possessed  Ne 
gro  blood,  was  probably  a  quadroon.20  Alexander  Pushkin, 
the  Russian  poet,  had  a  trace  of  Negro  blood.21  It  is  some 
times  said  that  Robert  Browning  had  a  trace  of  Negro 
blood,  but  there  seems  to  be  absolutely  no  basis  for  this 
tradition.22  About  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Abbe  Gregoire  published  a  volume  23  to  prove  the  equality 
of  the  Negro  intellect.  This  volume  contained  the  biogra 
phies  of  fifteen  Negroes  24  each  one  of  whom,  according  to 

80  One  grandmother  was  a  Negress  of  San  Domingo  but  whether  of 
full-blood  is  not  known.  See  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  Burr,  The 
Autobiography,  p.  155,  speaking  of  Dumas'  Memoirs,  says:  "His  own 
figure  is  painted  therein  in  crude,  staring  colors,  as  bright  as  life  .  .  . 
a  figure  out  of  Balzac  and  the  Comedie  Humaine.  Part  Napoleonic  sol 
dier,  part  San  Dominican  negro,  ...  ye  gods  of  the  drama,  what  an 
heredity!  ...  he  seems  to  us  a  savage  tale-teller,  seated  at  the  camp- 
fire,  holding  his  companions  breathless.  Alternately  lazy  and  energetic, 
sensual  and  shrewd,  he  has  all  the  undiluted  primitive  forces  of  huge 
vitality  and  huge  laughter^" 

31  One-sixteenth  or  less  Negro  blood.  His  maternal  great-grandfather 
was  a  Negro  but  whether  of  full-blood  is  not  certain. 

22 ".  .  .  There  is  no  ground  for  the  statement  that  the  family  was 
partly  of  Jewish  Origin."  Encyclopedia,  Britannica. 

38  H.  Gr6goire,  An  Enquiry  Concerning  the  Intellectual  and  Moral  Fac 
ulties,  and  Literature  of  Negroes;  followed  with  an  account  of  the  Life 
and  Works  of  Fifteen  Negroes  and  Mulattoes,  distinguished  in  Science, 
Literature  and  Arts.  Translated  by  D.  B.  Warden,  1810. 

24  Higiemonde   or   Higiemondo :  an   Indian  painter   "commonly  named 


1    The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  189 

Van  Evrie,  was  a  man  of  mixed  blood.  25  Frai^ois  Domi 
nique  Toussaint,  the  guerilla  chief  of  the  Negro  insurrec 
tionists  in  Haiti,  seems  not  to  have  been  a  full-blooded  Ne 
gro.26  Mr.  Lille  Geoff  ray  of  Martinique,  engineer,  mathe 
matician  and  corresponding  member  of  the  French  acad- 

the  negro,"  p.  171.  Gregoire  seems  not  certain  that  there  was  such  a 
man  or  if  there  was  that  he  was  a  Negro. 

Annibal:  an  officer  in  the  Russian  artillery  at  the  time  of  Peter  the 
Great. 

The  Son  of  Annibal:  a  mulatto. 

Anthony   William   Amo:  born  in   Guinea,  educated   in   England. 

L'Islet  Geoff  ray:  a  mulatto. 

James  Durham:  mulatto  slave,  practiced  medicine  in  New  Orleans. 

Thomas  Fuller:  mathematical  prodigy.     Apparently  a   Negro. 

Othello:  published  "An  Essay  Against  the  Slavery  of  Negroes." 
"Othello"  was  a  pseudonym.  The  race  of  the  writer  is  not  known.  There 
seems  to  be  no  reason  for  calling  him  a  Negro. 

Benjamin  Banneker:  a  mulatto. 

Ottobah  Cugoano:  published  his  reflections  of  the  slave  trade  and  the 
slavery  of  Negroes. 

James  Eliza  John  Capitein:  educated  in  Holland.  Wrote  some  Latin 
verses. 

William  Francis:  Jamaican  Negro  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Edu 
cated  in  England.  Taught  Latin  and  mathematics  in  Jamaica. 

Olandad,  or  Gustavus  Vassa:  brought  to  England  as  a  child;  wrote 
memoirs. 

Ignatius  Sancho:  an  English  butler.  An  edition  of  his  letters  was 
printed  after  his  death. 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters:  apparently  black. 

M  White  Supremacy  and  Negro  Subordination,  p.  163.  Van  Evrie 
would  seem  to  be  in  error  here.  Tradition  has  it  that  both  Thomas 
Fuller  and  Mrs.  Peters  were  full-blood  Negroes.  See  p.  190  below. 

29 ".  .  .  Judging  from  his  pictures,  you  cannot  but  form  the  opinion 
that  Toussaint  was  not  a  pure-blooded  negro:  the  features,  the  shape 
of  the  head,  the  setting  of  the  eyes  are  all  so  many  strong  reasons 
against  such  a  supposition."  Prichard,  Where  Black  Rules  White,  p. 
278.  For  a  contrary  opinion  see  the  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-15,  p.  75. 
C.  V.  Roman,  American  Civilization  and  the  Negro,  opposite  p.  8,  gives 
a  picture  of  Toussaint  and  calls  him  a  "full-blood."  Either  the  picture 
or  the  caption  is  in  error:  the  picture  is  not  that  of  a  full-blood  Negro. 


190  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

emy,  was  a  mulatto.27 

In  America,  even  at  an  early  date,  a  number  of  members 
of  the  race  had  risen  to  some  prominence.  The  most  noted 
of  these  was,  perhaps,  Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters.  Born  in 
Africa,  about  1750,  she  was  presumably  a  full-blooded  Ne 
gro  though  there  is  absolutely  nothing  known  concerning 
her  ancestry.  She  was  sold  into  slavery  and  in  1761  she 
was  brought  to  America  where  she  served  in  the  household 
of  Mrs.  John  Wheatley  of  Boston  and  from  whom  she  re 
ceived  some  slight  instruction  in  English  and  Latin.  She 
went  to  London  with  the  son  of  her  mistress.  While  there 
she  published  a  small  volume  of  poems  upon  which  rests  her 
claim  to  fame.  She  certainly  was  not  a  poet,28  but  her  ef 
forts  were  an  evidence  of  the  race's  capacity  for  intellec 
tual  improvement. 

Thomas  Fuller,29  a  mathematical  prodigy  of  the  same 
period,  seems  also  to  have  been  a  black  man.  He  enjoyed 
considerable  local  fame  because  of  his  power  to  perform 
complicated  mathematical  calculations.  He  was  unable  to 
read  or  write  and,  as  is  usual  with  prodigies  of  this  sort, 
seems  to  have  been  a  mental  defective. 

Benjamin  Banneker  seems  to  have  a  decidedly  better 
•  claim  to  prominence  than  either  of  the  preceding.  He  is 
said  to  have  constructed  the  first  clock  made  in  America; 
later  he  published  an  almanac.30  Banneker  was  a  free  mu 
latto  31  of  Maryland.  He  was  a  neighbor  and  friend  of 

OT  Vogt,  Lectures  on  Man,  pp.  192-93. 

28  B.  G.  Brawley,  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  p.  13. 
C.  G.  Woodson,  History  of  Negro  Education,  p.  90. 

29  G.   B.   Williams,  History  of   the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.    1, 
p.  399. 

Woodson,  History  of  Negro  Education,  pp.  87-88. 
80  Woodson,  History  of  Negro  Education,  pp.  90-91,  62-63. 
"Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  Vol.  1,  pp.  385, 
390.     See  p.  131  above. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  191 

Ellicott  who  acted  for  him  in  the  capacity  of  a  press  agent. 
He  seems  to  have  received  assistance  from  Ellicott,  but  the 
extent  of  his  indebtedness  is  uncertain. 

James  Durham  32  of  Philadelphia  and  later  of  New  Or 
leans  was  born  a  slave  in  1767.  From  his  master,  who  was 
a  physician,  he  learned  to  read  and  write  and  to  compound 
simple  medicines.  When  freed  by  his  master,  he  built  up  a 
successful  medical  practice  among  the  mulatto  Creoles  in 
New  Orleans.  Durham  was  a  mulatto. 

Most  of  the  prominent  Negroes  of  the  time  were  preachers. 
George  Leile,33  who  preached  in  Georgia  and  later  founded 
the  first  Negro  Baptist  colony  in  Jamaica,  was  a  mulatto. 

Andrew  Bryan,  the  founder  of  the  African  Baptist 
church,  was  a  man  of  mixed  blood,  as  was  John  Chavis,34 
an  itinerant  preacher  of  the  Methodist  church.  John  Glouce 
ster  of  Tennessee,  founder  of  the  African  Presbyterian 
church  in  Philadelphia,  was  probably  a  black  man.  Henry 
Evans,  an  itinerant  preacher  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
seems  also  to  have  been  a  Negro  of  pure  blood.35  Lemuel 
Haynes,  the  first  Negro  Congregational  minister,  was  a 
mulatto,  as  was  Richard  Allen,  the  founder  of  the  Negro 
Methodist  Church. 

In  the  decade  preceding  the  Civil  War,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  emotional  attitude  of  the  people  of  the  North  mag 
nified  out  of  all  focus  the  doings  of  any  black  man,  it  is 

"Negro  Year  Book  1914-1915,  p.  334. 

J.  A.  Kenney,  The  Negro  in  Medicine,  p.  6. 

Woodson,  History  of  Negro  Education,  pp.  88-89. 

**  Also  known  as  George  Sharp. 

MJ.  S.  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Caro 
lina,  p.  73,  says  Chavis  was  a  full-blood  Negro.  This  seems  to  be  an 
error.  See,  also,  the  same  writer's  article  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Sociology,  Vol.  13,  p.  826. 

"  Bassett,  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  p.  57. 


192  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

somewhat  surprising  that  there  did  not  appear  a  group  of 
prominent  men  of  the  race.  The  only  one,  however,  who 
succeeded  in  rising  above  mediocrity  was  Frederick  Doug 
lass,  an  anti-slavery  agitator  and  journalist.  His  father 
was  a  white  man  3G  and  his  mother  a  slave  of  unknown  color, 
but  with  sufficient  Indian  intermixture  to  show  prominently 
in  the  features  as  well  as  in  the  disposition  of  her  noted 
son.37 

During  the  entire  period  that  slavery  existed  as  a  na 
tional  institution,  individuals  frequently  escaped  from  the 
border  states  into  free  territory.  Especially  during  the 
latter  years  of  the  slave  regime,  there  were  a  considerable 
number  of  these  runaway  slaves.  An  organized  and  elaborate 
system  of  criminal  procedure  grew  up  toward  the  end  of  the 
slave  period  and  became  known  as  the  Underground  Rail 
road.  As  was  to  be  expected,  the  free  Negroes  and  escaped 
slaves  took  some  part  in  this  outlawry.  The  Year  Book  38 
names  the  most  notorious  of  these  Negroes  and  gives 
sketches  of  their  careers.39  Of  the  fifteen,  Harriet  Tubman 
88 New  International  Encyclopaedia:  Frederick  Douglass. 

87  Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Story  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  p.  132. 

88  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  pp.  102-06. 

89  William  Wells  Brown  mulatto 
Frederick  Douglass  mulatto 
James  Forten  mulatto 
Mifflin  Wistar  Gibbs  mulatto 
Mrs.  F.  E.  W.  Harper  mulatto 
Lewis   Hayden  mulatto 
Lunsford  Lane  mulatto 
Robert  Purvis  mulatto 
Charles  Lenox  Remond  mulatto 
J.  B.  Russwurm  mulatto 
William  Still  mulatto 
Sojourner  Truth  mulatto 
Harriet  Tubman  black 
David  Walker  mulatto 
William  Whipper  mulatto 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  193 

seems  to  have  been  a  black  woman;  the  other  fourteen  were 
mulattoes.40 

Since  the  Civil  War,  all  lines  of  endeavor  in  America 
have  been  open  to  the  Negro.  In  some  cases  he  has  met 
with  prejudice  and  discrimination;  in  other  cases  his  color 
has  given  him  a  prestige  not  enjoyed  by  his  white  com 
petitor.41  At  the  present  time,  there  is  no  insuperable,  ex 
ternal  obstacle  to  the  Negro's  entrance  to,  and  success  in, 
any  of  the  ordinary  lines  of  human  endeavor,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  Negroes  have  entered  all  of  them  and  that 
individuals  of  the  race  have  achieved  some  degree  of  success 
in  each  of  the  different  lines. 

There  have  been  compiled  and  published,  from  time  to 
time,  lists  of  these  Negroes  who  have  risen  to  prominence. 
It  may  be  that  these  lists  do  not  contain  the  names  of  all 
the  successful  Negroes.  It  may  also  be  true  that  many  of 
the  names  which  appear  are  those  of  men  who  have  shown 
no  great  talent  or  achieved  no  great  renown.  But  it  may 
be  fairly  assumed  that  they  are,  in  most  cases  at  least,  men 
of  some  importance  and  prominence  in  their  community  and 
that  they  are  leaders  in  a  larger  or  smaller  way  within  their 
racial  group.  If  this  be  so,  a  determination  of  the  ancestry 
of  these  men  should  be  a  fair  index  as  to  the  percentage  of 
mulattoes  and  full-blooded  Negroes  among  the  leaders  and 
other  prominent  men  of  the  race. 

Mr.  DuBois  has  compiled  such  a  list,42  illustrated  by  full 
page  photographs  of  ten  living43  Negroes  who  represent 

40  J.  S.  Bassett,  Anti-Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Carolina,  p.  321,  says 
Lane's  parents  were  "of  pure  African  descent."     This  is  emphatically 
denied  by  Negroes  who  knew  him  personally. 

41  B.  W.  Smith,  The  Color  Line:  A  Brief  in  Behalf  of  the   Unborn, 
pp.  43-44. 

42  DuBois,  Booklover's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  pp.  2-14. 
"July,  1903. 


194  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  "Advance  Guard  of  the  Race."  44  To  the  list,  the  ed 
itors  add  a  similar  sketch  and  a  similar  photograph  of  Mr. 
DuBois.  These  men  "measured  by  any  fair  standard  of 
human  accomplishment  .  .  .  are  distinctly  men  of  mark."  45 
Regarding  the  racial  ancestry  of  these  men  Mr.  DuBois 
says :  46 

...  Of  the  men  I  have  named,  three  are  black,  two 
are  brown,  two  are  half-white,  and  three  are  three- 
fourths  white.  ...  If  we  choose  among  these  men  the 
two  of  keenest  intellect,  one  is  black  and  the  other 
brown;  if  we  choose  the  three  of  strongest  character, 
two  are  yellow  and  one  is  black.  If  we  choose  three 
according  to  their  esthetic  sensibility,  one  is  black, 
one  is  yellow,  and  one  three-fourths  white. 

Seven  of  the  ten  are  admittedly  mulatto,  so  may  be 
passed  without  comment.  Three  are  said  to  be  "black."  But 
by  this  term,  it  cannot  be  meant  to  assert  that  they  are 
full-blood  Negroes.  The  only  three  men  in  the  list  who 
could  possibly  be  called  "black"  are  Dunbar,  the  poet; 
Miller,  the  mathematician ;  and  Woods,  the  electrician.  Of 
these  men  Dunbar,  according  to  all  accounts,  was  a  real 
Negro.  Kelly  Miller  is  a  brown  mulatto.47  Granville  T. 

"Charles  W.  Chestnutt  Novelist  mulatto 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  Poet  black 

Francis  J.  Grimk6  Clergyman  mulatto 

Kelly  Miller  Mathematician  black 

Edward  H.  Morris  Lawyer  mulatto 

Henry  O.  Tanner  Artist  mulatto 

W.  L.  Taylor  Business  man  mulatto 

Booker  T.  Washington  Politician  mulatto 

Daniel  H.  Williams  Surgeon  mulatto 

Granville  T.  Woods  Electrician  Australian-Malay 

*6  Booklover's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  p.  2. 

"Ibid.,  p.  15. 

47  W.  I.  Thomas,  "Race  Psychology,"  American  Journal  of  Sociology, 
Vol.  17,  p.   746,  speaks  of  Miller  as  a  "full-blooded  black,'*     The  At- 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  195 

Woods  seems  to  have  no  drop  of  African  blood.  He  is  aft 
Australian  by  birth  48  and  by  ancestry  a  mixture  of  Malay 
Indian  and  Australian  Black.49  Of  these  ten  names,  then, 
one  is  that  of  a  Negro,  one  that  of  an  Australian  of  mixed 
ancestry,  and  the  remaining  eight  are  mulattoes.  If  Mr. 
DuBois  be  included  in  the  list,  the  count  then  stands  one 
Negro  to  ten  men  of  mixed  blood. 

In  1903,  the  Pott  Publishing  Company  issued  a  small 
volume  of  essays  by  Negroes  discussing  different  phases  of 
the  Negro  problem  in  America.50  Seven  writers  contributed 
to  the  volume.51  Of  these  men,  one  was  a  black  Negro  and 
six  were  mulattoes.  Of  the  six,  two  were  men  of  about 
equal  parts  of  white  and  black;  while  the  other  four  were 
from  three-fourths  to  fifteen-sixteenths  white. 

In  one  of  the  essays  in  the  volume,  Mr.  DuBois  again 
treats  the  subject  of  the  Negro  leaders  under  the  caption 

lantic  Advocate  calls  him  a  "full-blooded  colored  man."  He  seems 
to  consider  himself  a  Negro  and  is  generally  so  claimed  by  the  race. 
As  we  are  concerned  here  with  social  and  not  with  biological  facts  we 
have  placed  Professor  Miller  in  the  full-blood  group  in  spite  of  his 
mixed  ancestry.  See  note  44,  p.  194  above. 

"Miller,  Race  Adjustment,  p.  197,  says  that  Woods  was  born  in 
Ohio. 

49  "His  mother's  father  was  a  Malay  Indian,  and  his  other  grand 
parents  were  by  birth  full-blooded  savage  Australian  aborigines  born 
in  the  wilds  back  of  Melbourne.  ...  At  the  age  of  16,  Woods  was 
brought  by  his  parents  to  America.  .  .  ."  S.  W.  Balch,  "Electrical  Mo 
tor  Regulation,"  Cosmopolitan,  Vol.  18,  p.  762. 

80  The  Negro  Problem:  A  Series  of  Articles  by  Representative  Amer 
ican  Negroes  of  To-day. 

"  C.  W.   Chestnutt  mulatto 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois  mulatto 

Paul  L.  Dunbar  black 

T.  Thomas  Fortune  mulatto 

H.  T.  Kealing  mulatto 

Wilford  H.  Smith  mulatto 

Booker  T.  Washington  mulatto 


196 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


"The  Talented  Tenth"  and  finds  twenty-one  men  and  two 
women  worthy  of  this  title.  Supplying  the  initials,  supple 
menting  the  list  with  an  indication  of  the  ground  on  which 
their  claim  to  greatness  rests  and  an  indication  of  their 
ancestry,  we  have: 


Ira  Aldridge 
Benjamin  Banneker 

B.  K.  Bruce 
Alexander  Crummell 
Paul  Cuffe 

Frederick  Douglass 

James  Durham 
R.  B.  Elliott 
H.  H.  Garnett 
R.  T.  Greener 
Lemuel  Haynes 
John  M.  Langston 
D.  A.  Payne 

J.  W.  C.  Pennington 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters 

Robert  Purvis 
Charles  L.   Remond 

J.  B.  Russwurm 
McCune  Smith 
Sojourner  Truth 
David  Walker 
B.  T.  Washington 
Bert  Williams 


Negro  actor 

Invented  clock;  published  alma 
nac 

Reconstruction  politician 

Preacher 

In    charge  of   the   first   load   of 
Negroes  sent  to  Liberia 

Runaway  slave;  anti-slavery  agi 
tator;   politician 

Practiced  medicine 

Reconstruction  politician 

Preacher 

Reconstruction  politician 

Early  Negro  preacher 

Reconstruction  politician 

Bishop  of  the  African  Methodist 
Church 

Underground  Railroad  operator 

Slave  of  John  Wheatley;  writer 
of  verse 

Agitator;      Underground      Rail 
road  operator 

Agitator ;      Underground      Rail 
road  operator 

A  governor  of  Liberia 

Physician  and  druggist 

Underground  Railroad  agent 

Agitator 

Principal  Tuskegee  Institute 

Comedian 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto  " 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 

black 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


Of  the  women  named  one  was  a  mulatto  and  one  was  a 
black  Negro.     Of  the  twenty-one  men,  all  were  mulattoes. 

"  Sometimes   mistakenly   classed   as   a   full-blood   Negro. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  197 

Two  of  these  men,  Garnett  and  Crummell,  are  sometimes 
classed  as  full-blooded  Negroes ;  but  this  seems  to  be  con 
trary  to  the  facts.  Both  men  were  the  offspring  of  a  mixed 
ancestry.  The  father  of  Crummell  is  said  to  have  been  an 
African  chief.  He  married  a  free  Negro  woman  of  mixed 
blood.  The  son,  however,  is  very  dark  in  color  and  passes 
as  a  Negro  of  full-blood.  He  is  accordingly  listed  with 
the  full-bloods  here. 

The  Negro  Star  Publishing  Company 53  advertises  for 
sale  the  pictures  of  "all  the  great  men  of  the  race."  54  Their 
complete  list  comprises  the  pictures  of  twelve  persons.  The 
single  woman  whose  picture  is  included  in  the  collection  was 
a  mulatto.  Of  the  eleven  photographs  remaining,  one  is 
that  of  a  black  man — Dunbar, — one  is  that  of  a  man — 
Toussaint — concerning  whose  racial  ancestry  there  may  be 
a  reasonable  doubt,55  and  nine  are  photographs  of  men  who 
are  obviously  and  admittedly  mulattoes.56 

Kelly  Miller  in  a  chapter  on  "Eminent  Negroes"  57  names 
sixteen  individuals.  Presumably  these  persons  are,  in  the 

58  Greenwood,  Mississippi. 

"See  any  issue  of  the  Negro  Star,  for  e.g.,  1-14-1916.     Letter  from 
the  General  Manager  under  date  of  1-25-1916. 

65  See  p.  189  above. 

Crispus  Attucks  mulatto 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois  mulatto 

Frederick  Douglass  mulatto 

Alexandre   Dumas  mulatto 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  black 

Richard  T.  Greener  mulatto 

John  Mercer  Langston  mulatto 

S.  Coleridge  Taylor  mulatto 

Henry  O.  Tanner  mulatto 

Francois  Dominique  Toussaint  mulatto 

Sojourner  Truth  mulatto 

Booker  T.  Washington  mulatto 

"Race  Adjustment,  pp.  186-98. 


198  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

opinion  of  Mr.  Miller,  the  best  that  the  race  in  America  has 
produced.  "The  names  here  presented,"  he  says  58  "are  at 
least  respectable  when  measured  by  European  standards. 
It  is  true  that  no  one  of  them  reaches  the  first,  or  even  the 
second  degree  of  luster  in  the  galaxy  of  the  world's  great 
ness."  But  they  are  all  individuals  in  whose  accomplish 
ments  the  race  may  well  take  pride.  Of  the  names  pre 
sented,  one  is  that  of  a  black  woman,  one  that  of  a  black 
man,  and  the  remaining  fourteen  are  names  of  men  of  mixed 
blood.  The  complete  list  follows: 

Ira  Aldridge  Actor  mulatto 

Benjamin  Banneker  Inventor  mulatto 

Charles  W.  Chestnutt  Novelist  mulatto 

Frederick   Douglass  Politician  mulatto 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois  Writer  mulatto 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  Poet  black 

Lemuel  Haynes  Minister  mulatto 

Elijah  T.  McCoy  Inventor  mulatto 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters  Poet  black 

W.  S.  Scarborough  Teacher  mulatto 

B.  T.  Tanner  Bishop  mulatto 

Henry  O.  Tanner  Artist  mulatto 

B.  T.  Washington  Educator  mulatto 

Daniel  H.  Williams  Physician  mulatto 

George  H.  Williams  Writer  mulatto 

Granville  T.  Woods  Inventor  mulatto9' 

Cromwell  60  presents  a  slightly  variant  list.  His  intention, 
as  stated  in  the  preface  to  his  volume,  is  the  publication  of 
a  book  which  will  give  "the  salient  points  in  the  history  of 
the  American  Negro,  the  story  of  their  most  eminent  men 
and  women  .  .  ."  The  twenty  persons  selected  include 

68 Race  Adjustment,  p.  188. 

69  See  note  49,  p.  195  above. 

60  J.  W.  Cromwell,  The  Negro  in  American  History. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  199 

three  women  and  seventeen  men.  One  of  the  women  and 
three  of  the  men  were  black.  The  sixteen  remaining  are 
names  of  mixed-blood  individuals.  His  selection  of  the 
"most  eminent  men  and  women"  of  the  race  is  as  follows : 

Ben j  amin   Banneker  mulatto 

Edward   W.    Blyden  mulatto61 

Blanche  Kelso  Bruce  mulatto 

George  F.  T.  Cook  mulatto 

John   F.   Cook,   Jr.  mulatto 

John  F.  Cook,  Sr.  mulatto 

Fanny  M.  Jackson  Coppin  mulatto 

Alexander   Crummell  black82 

Paul  Cuffe  mulatto 

Frederick  Douglass  mulatto 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  black 

Robert  Brown  Elliott  mulatto 

Henry    Highland    Garnett  mulatto63 

John  Mercer  Langston  mulatto 

Daniel    Alexander    Payne  mulatto 

Phyllis   Wheatley   Peters  black 

Joseph  Charles  Price  black64 

Henry  Osawa  Tanner  mulatto 

Sojourner  Truth  mulatto 

Booker  T.  Washington  mulatto 

The  California  Eagle 65  advertises  for  sale  the  pictures 
of  "the  most  Famous  Men  of  the  Colored  Race,  living  and 
dead."  Their  picture  features  eight  men,  one  of  whom,- — 
Dunbar — was  black.  The  remaining  seven  are  names  of  men 

61  Cromwell   calls   Blyden   a   full-blood   Negro   but   this   seems   not   to 
have  been  the  case.     He  was  a  dark  man  of  mixed  ancestry. 

62  See  p.  197  above. 

63  See  note  52,  p.  196  above. 

w  Cromwell  calls  Price  a  full-blood  Negro.  He  was  probably  not  a 
man  of  unmixed  Negro  blood.  He  passed,  however,  as  a  full-blood 
Negro  and  the  race  took  great  pride  in  claiming  him  as  such.  A  good 
photograph  appears  on  p.  212  of  Cromwell's  book. 

"  A  Negro  newspaper  of  Los  Angeles,  California. 


200 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


of  mixed  blood.66 

The  Colored  American  Review67  offers  a  similar  list 
which  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  editors,  "the  largest  and 
finest  collection  of  'Famous  Negroes,'  both  past  and  present, 
in  America  and  abroad."  68  Thirty-two  names  appear  in 
the  printed  list.  Of  these,  five  are  names  of  women,  and 
twenty-seven  are  names  of  men.  Of  the  five  women,  one  is 
a  pure-blooded  Negress,  and  the  remaining  four  arc  mu- 
lattoes.  Of  the  twenty-seven  names  of  men,  three  are  of 
full-blooded  Negroes  and  twenty-four  are  of  mulattoes. 
The  complete  list  and  descriptions  to  which  is  here  added 
an  indication  as  to  the  purity  of  blood,  is  as  follows : 

mulatto 


Hon.  Harry  Boss 

William  Stanley  Braithwaite 

Rev.  W.  W.  Brown 

Harry  T.  Burleigh 

Anita  Bush 

Bob  Cole 

Hon.  James  Curtis 

Frederick  Douglass 

Howard  P.  Drew 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois 

Alexandre  Dumas 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar 

James  Reese  Europe 

Mathews    Henson 

Ernest  Hogan 

J.  Rosamond  Johnson 


Lawyer  and  Legislator 

Poet  and  Critic  mulatto 

Eminent  Baptist  Divine  mulatto 

Singer  and  Composer  mulatto 

Actress  mulatto 

Actor  and  Comedian  mulatto 
Lawyer,  Minister  to  Liberia          mulatto 

Statesman  mulatto 

Athlete,  Runner  mulatto 

Educator  and  Author  mulatto 

Author  mulatto 

Poet  black 

Musician  and  Composer  mulatto 

Explorer  mulatto 

Comedian  mulatto 

Composer  mulatto 


Crispus  Attucks 
Frederick  Douglass 
W.  E.  B.  DuBbis 
Alexandre  Dumas 
Paul  Laurence  Dunbar 
H.  O.  Tanner 
Coleridge    Taylor 
Booker  T.  Washington 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


87  A  semi-monthly  magazine,  published  in  New  York  City. 

88  See,  for  e.g.,  the  issue  of  March,  1916,  p.  187. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race 


201 


James  W.  Johnson 
Mme.  Jones   (Black  Patti) 
Hon.  Wm.  H.  Lewis 
Sam  Lucas 
Kelly  Miller 
Robert    Russa   Moton 
Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters 
Rev.  Clayton  Powell 
Henry  Tanner 
Coleridge   Taylor 
Major  Taylor 
Aida  Walker 
Mme.  C.  J.  Walker 
George  Walker 
Booker  T.  Washington 
Bert  Williams 


Ex-U.  S.  Consul  and  Author        mulatto 

Singer  mulatto  * 

Ex-U.  S.  Ass't.  Dist.  Atty.  mulatto 

The  Original  Uncle  Tom  mulatto 

Philosopher  and  Author  black70 

Educator  black 

Famous  Poet  black 

Eminent  Baptist  Divine  mulatto 

Artist  mulatto 

Musician   and  Composer  mulatto 

Champion  Bicycle  Rider  mulatto  u 

Actress  and  Dancer  mulatto 

Hair  Culturist,  Lecturer  mulatto 

Actor  and  Composer  mulatto 

Educator  mulatto 

Comedian  mulatto 


All  the  present  Bishops  of  the  A.  M.  E.  Z.  Church     « 
All  the  present  Bishops  of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church 

The  Reverend  J.  A.  Duncan,  Pastor  of  the  Ebenezer  Af 
rican  Methodist  Episcopalian  Church  of  Stockton,  Califor 
nia,  in  an  article  in  The  California  Eagle,  a  Negro  news 
paper,  under  the  title  "Our  Famous  Colored  Women,"  names 
fourteen  women.  One  name  is  that  of  a  full-blooded  Ne 
gress.  The  thirteen  names  remaining  are  of  women  of  mixed 
ancestry.  The  compilation  is  as  follows : 


Mrs.   Ida  Wells-Barnet 
Madam  Flora  B.  Bergen 
Miss  Hallie  Quinn  Brown 
Henrietta  Vinton   Davis 
Frances  E.  Harper 
Sissieretta    Jones 
Edmonia   Lewis 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 7S 

mulatto 


•"Classed  by  some  correspondents  as  a  full-blood  Negress. 

70  See  note  47,  p.  194  above. 

71  One  correspondent  called  Taylor  black.     The  consensus  of  opinion, 
however,  was  that  he  was  a  brown  mulatto. 

"See  pages  276  ff.  for  an  analysis  of  these  groups. 
78  See  note  70,  p.  201. 


202  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters  black 

Madam   Selika  mulatto 

Mrs.  Amanda  Smith  mulatto 

Fannie   Church   Terrell  mulatto 

Sojourner  Truth  mulatto 

Ada  Overton  Walker  mulatto 

Mrs.  Booker  T.  Washington  mulatto74 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1916,  Mr.  DuBois  issued  a 
Who's  Who  in  Colored  America.75  This  publication  con 
tained  the  names  of  139  individuals  who,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  editor,  were  the  real  intellectual  and  social  aristocracy 
of  the  American  Negro.  The  Who's  Who  contained  the 
names  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  men  and  eight  women. 
The  list  recorded  the  names  of  four  men  whom  the  Negroes 
themselves  claim  as  "black"  and  for  social  purposes  may 
be  so  considered,  though  two,  and  possibly  three,  of  the 
four  have  been  modified  by  an  earlier  admixture  of  white 
blood.  Concerning  three  of  the  men,  no  information  was 
obtained.  They  seem  not  to  be  well-known  to  the  members 
of  their  race.76  The  remaining  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  men  are  mulattoes.  The  eight  women  are  all  mulat- 
toes.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  thirty- two  mulattoes  two  are 
dark,77  while  about  one-half  approximate  the  white  race  in 
features,  head-form,  and  skin  coloration.  Taking  the  list 
as  a  whole,  there  is  present  somewhat  over  four  times  as 
much  white  as  Negro  blood.  The  complete  list  follows:78 

74  The  third  wife  of  Booker  T.  Washington. 
76  The  Crisis  Calendar  for  1916. 

76  See  note  82,  p.  207  below. 

77  That   is,   they  are  less   than   one-half  white.     One  is   three- fourths 
black.     The  exact  amount  of  Negro  blood  in  the  other  is  not  known, 
but  is  approximately  three-fourths. 

78  The  poetic  designations  are  the  work  of  the  compiler;  the  present 
writer  adds   the  ethnic  information.     The  initials,  wrongly  given  in   a 
few  cases,  have  been  corrected. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  list  contains  the  names  of  fifteen  full- 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race 


208 


WHO'S    WHO    IN    COLORED    AMERICA" 


Charles  W.  Anderson 

C.  E.  Bentley 

H.  C.  Bishop 

J.  W.  E.  Bowen 

R.  H.  Boyd 

W.  Stanley  Braithwaite 

B.  G.  Brawley 
Miss  H.  Q.  Brown 
Mrs.  B.  K.  Bruce 
John  E.  Bruce 
Roscoe  C.  Bruce 
I.  T.   Bryant 

W.  H.  Bulkley 

Harry  T.  Burleigh 

Miss  Nannie  H.  Burroughs 

William   H.   Bush 

J.  S.  Caldwell 

James   L.  Carr 

W.  J.  Carter 

C.  W.  Chestnutt 
George  W.  Cook 
Will  Marion  Cook 
L.  J.  Coppin 

W.  H.  Crogman 

Harry  S.  Cummings 

A.  M.  Curtis 

James  L.  Curtis 

J.  C.  Dancey 

Franklin  Dennison 

R.  N.  Dett 

J.  H.  Douglass 

W.  E.  Burghardt  DuBois 

James  Reese  Europe 


Worthy  Public  Official  mulatto 
Pioneer  in  Dental  Reform  mulatto 
Religious  Organizer  mulatto 
Lecturer  and  Teacher  mulatto 
Captain  of  Industry  mulatto 
Poet  and  Interpreter  of  Lit 
erature  mulatto 
Author  mulatto 
Elocutionist  mulatto 
Astute  and  Gracious  Leader  mulatto 
Popular  Writer  mulatto 
Educational  Leader  mulatto 
Church  Officer  mulatto 
Efficient  Educator  mulatto 
Maker  of  Songs  mulatto 
Organizer  of  Women  mulatto 
Organist  mulatto 
Bishop  of  the  Church  mulatto 
Able  Advocate  mulatto 

Able  Advocate  

Man  of  Letters  mulatto 
Financier  mulatto 
Musician  mulatto 
Bishop  of  the  Church  mulatto 
Teacher  and  Kindly  Gentle 
man  mulatto 
Political  Leader  and  Lawyer  mulatto 
Surgeon  and  Physician  mulatto 
Minister  to  Liberia  mulatto 
Public  Official  mulatto 
Lawyer  and  Leader  mulatto 
Composer  mulatto 
Violinist  mulatto 
Editor  and  Author  mulatto 
Composer  and  Organizer  of 

musicians  mulatto 


blooded  Negroes.     Such  assertion  can  be  maintained  only  by  adopting  a 
very  different  definition  of  the  term  full-blooded  from  that  used  as  the 
basis  for  this  study.    See  Crisis,  12-1917,  p.  77. 
79  The  Crisis  Calendar,  1916. 


204 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


WHO'S  WHO  IN  COLORED  AMERICA— Continued 


S.  D.  Ferguson 

J.  S.  Flipper 

T.  Thomas  Fortune 

S.  C.  Fuller 
Henry  W.   Furniss 
W.  H.  Goler 
J.  M.  Gregory  x 

R.  T.  Greener 
Archibald  H.  Grimke 

F.  J.  Grimke 

G.  C.  Hall 

W.  H.  H.  Hart 
J.   R.   Hawkins 
Mason  A.   Hawkins 
W.  Ashbie  Hawkins 
Roland  W.  Hayes 
L.  M.  Hershaw 
L.  H.  Holsey 
J.  W.  Hood 
John  Hope 
W.  A.  Hunton 
John  E.  Hurst 
E.  W.  D.  Isaacs 
J.  T.  Jenifer 
Harvey  Johnson 
H.  L.  Johnson 
J.  A.  Johnson 
James  W.  Johnson 
Rosamond   Johnson 

R.  E.  Jones 
L.  G.  Jordan 
Ernest  E.  Just 
H.  T.   Kealing 
Lucy  Laney 

R.  Augustus  Lawson 
B.  F.  Lee 
James  Lewis 
W.  H.  Lewis 


Venerable    Bishop  mulatto 

Bishop   of  the  Church  mulatto 
Founder    of    Negro    Journal-    mulatto 

ism  and  Indian 

Pioneer  in  Psychiatry  mulatto 

Able  Diplomatist  mulatto 

Educational   Leader  mulatto 

Veteran  Educator  mulatto 

Pioneer   Public   Servant  mulatto 

Publicist   and   Writer  mulatto 

Preacher  of  the  Word  of  God    mulatto 

Deft  Surgeon  mulatto 
Able  Advocate  and  Defender    mulatto 

Church   Leader  mulatto 

Educational  Leader  mulatto 

Capable  Lawyer  mulatto 

Sweet  Singer  mulatto 

Civil  Servant  mulatto 

Church  Leader  mulatto 

Venerable  Prelate  mulatto 

Teacher  of  Youth  mulatto 

Apostle  to  Young  Men  mulatto 

Church  Leader  mulatto 

Preacher  and  Publisher  mulatto 

Venerable  Preacher  mulatto 

Venerable  Preacher  mulatto 

Public  Official  mulatto 

Apostle  to  Africa  mulatto 

Writer  and  Poet  mulatto 
Composer       and       Orchestra 

Leader  mulatto 

Able  Editor  mulatto 

Missionary  mulatto 

Student  of  Living  Things  mulatto 

Teacher  and  Educator  mulatto 

Protector     of     Women  and 

Girls  mulatto 

Teacher  of  Music  mulatto 

Bishop  of  the  Church  mulatto 

Public  Official  mulatto 
Lawyer  and  Public  Official        mulatto 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race 


205 


WHO'S  WHO  IN  COLORED  AMERICA— Continued 


W.  Logan 
John  R.  Lynch 

E.  McCoy 

John    R.   Marshall 

Cassius   Mason 

James  C.  Matthews 

K.  Miller 

John   Mitchell 

W.  E.  Mollison 

I.  T.  Montgomery 

G.  W.  Moore 

Lewis  B.  Moore 

J.  E.  Mooreland 

E.  C.  Morris 

E.  H.  Morris 

W.  R.  Morris 

N.  F.  Mossell 

Lucy  Moton 

Robert  R.  Moten 

Daniel  Murray 

J.   C.   Napier 

Father  Oncles 

H.  B.  Parks 

I.  Garland  Penn 

C.  H.  Phillips 

Henry  L.  Phillips 

P.  B.  S.  Pinchback 

R.   C.   Ransom 

J.  B.  Reeve 

H.  A.  Rucker 

Mrs.  J.  St.  P.  Ruffin 

W.   S.   Scarborough 

E.  J.  Scott 

I.  B.  Scott 

William  E.  Scott 

C.  T.  Shaffer 

R.  Smalls 

B.  S.  Smith 

C.  S.   Smith 
H.  C.  Smith 


Financial   Officer 

Pioneer   in    Political   Service 

Skilled   Inventor 
Military   Pioneer 
Preacher   of  Righteousness 
Political  Leader  and  Jurist 
Author  and  Critic 
Editor  and   Business  Man 
Banker  and  Business  Man 
Founder  of  a  Town 
Religious   Leader 
Teacher  of  Teachers 
Builder  of  Men's  Clubs 
Baptist  Leader 
Chosen  Leader 
Able  Advocate 
Hospital  Founder 
Teacher  of  Courtesy 
Organizer 
Bookman 
Public  Official 
Priest  of  the  Church 
Bishop  of  the  Church 
Church    Official 
Bishop  of  the  Church 
Practical  Apostle 
Pioneer  of  Reconstruction 
Orator  and  Editor 
Honored  Preacher 
Efficient  Public  Official 
Pioneer  Club  Woman 
Scholar  in  Letters 
Able  Secretary 
Bishop  of  the  Church 
Artist  in  Colors 
Servant  of  the  Church 
Hero  and  Public  Servant 
Lawyer  and  Public  Officer 
Bishop  of  the  Church 
Veteran  Editor 


mulatto 
mulatto 
and  Indian 
mulatto 
mulatto 


mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


WHO'S  WHO  IN  COLORED  AMERICA— Continued 


T.  G.  Steward 

B.  T.  Tanner 
H.  O.  Tanner 

Mrs.  Mary  Church  Terrell 

R.  H.  Terrell 

W.  Monroe  Trotter 

W.  V.  Tunnell 

C.  H.  Turner 
E.  Tyree 

G.  W.  Vass 
W.  T.  Vernon 
Maggie  B.  Walker 
A.   Walters 
Wm.    A.   Warfield 
Marcus  F.  Wheatland 
Clarence  C.  White 
Fred  White 
G.  H.  White 

Bert  Williams 

D.  H.  Williams 

E.  C.  Williams 

W.  T.  B.  Williams 
Carter  G.  Woodson 
J.  W.  Woodson 
Monroe  N.  Work 
R.  R.  Wright 
R.  R.  Wright,  Jr. 
Charles  Young 


Chaplain  and  Writer  mulatto 

Venerable  Prelate  mulatto 

Artist  in  Colors  mulatto 
Lecturer      and      Leader      of 

Women  mulatto 

Judicial  Officer  mulatto 

Intrepid  Agitator  mulatto 

Preacher  and  Teacher  mulatto 

Student  of  Living  Things  mulatto 

Bishop  of  the  Church  black 

Religious  Leader  mulatto 

Public  Official  black 

Able  Business  Woman  mulatto 

Bishop  and  Leader  mulatto 
Surgeon  and  Administrator        mulatto 

Noted  Physician  mulatto 

Musician  mulatto 

Organist  mulatto 

Congressman   and   Banker  mulatto 

and  Indian 

Apostle  of  Laughter  mulatto 

Master  of  Surgery  mulatto 

Teacher  of  Youth  mulatto 

Social  Student  mulatto 

Student  of  History  mulatto 

Able  Lawyer  

Social  Statistician  mulatto 

Noted  Educator  mulatto 

Editor  and  Student  mulatto 
Military    Expert    and    Brave 

Soldier  mulatto 


Such  a  list,  as  the  compiler  himself  says,80  is  necessarily 
largely  a  matter  of  personal  opinion.  In  order  to  eliminate 
in  so  far  as  possible  this  personal  equation,  letters  were 
sent  to  each  of  the  persons  in  the  foregoing  list  whose  ad 
dress  it  was  possible  to  secure,  asking  each  to  name  the 
twenty-five  living  Negroes  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  per- 
80  Letter  from  Mr.  DuBois  under  date  of  2-10-1916. 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  207 

son  addressed,  were  the  foremost  men  of  the  race.  The  men 
addressed  proved  about  thirty  per  cent  courteous.  Thirty- 
six  lists  were  received,  including  in  all  two  hundred  and  fifty 
separate  names.81  One  hundred  and  forty-four  names  ap 
peared  but  a  single  time  in  the  whole  series  of  lists  sub 
mitted  82  and,  inasmuch  as  they  thus  represent  the  opinion 
of  a  single  individual,83  they  are  dropped  from  further  con 
sideration  here.84  One  hundred  and  six  names  remained. 
Of  these,  eight  are  dark  men  of  Negro  features,  though 
probably  not  in  every  case  full-blooded  Negroes.  Ninety- 
eight  are  admittedly  mulattoes.  The  list  of  names,  the 
number  of  times  the  individual  was  mentioned  in  the  letters 
received,  the  vocation  and  ethnic  composition  follows: 

THE  FOREMOST  AMERICAN  NEGROES 

in  the  opinion  of 
PROMINENT  MEN  OF  THE  RACE 

81  R.   R.  Moton  Principal   Tuskegee   Institute  black 

30  W.  E.  B.  DuBois  Editor  and  writer  mulatto 

26  Kelly  Miller  Teacher  and  writer  black 

23  William   Henry  Lewis  Lawyer  and  politician  mulatto 

23  Daniel  H.  Williams  Physician  and  surgeon  mulatto 

21  Emmett  J.  Scott  Secretary  Tuskegee  Institute  mulatto 

"A  number  of  lists  contained  twenty- four  names:  a  dead-lock,  ap 
parently,  between  accuracy  and  modesty.  A  few  lists  contained  names 
in  excess  of  twenty-five. 

M  This  is  not  to  be  taken  as  evidence  that  each  man  included  his  own 
name  in  the  list  submitted  and  got  no  other  mention.  In  only  six  of 
the  thirty-six  lists  submitted  did  the  compiler  include  himself  and  in  each 
such  case  his  name  appeared  in  other  lists. 

83  One  man  submitted  the  Bishops  and  General  Officers  of  his  church 
as   including   all   the   foremost   American   Negroes.      Another   included 
Sam  Langford,  the  prize  fighter,  among  the  twenty-five  greatest  men 
of  the  race.     A  number  of  other  peculiarities  of  personal  preference 
appeared. 

84  Of  these  144  names  7  were  of  black  men,  95  of  mulattoes  and  42 
were  of  individuals  whose  racial  ancestry  was  not  determined. 


208 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


THE  FOREMOST  AMERICAN  NEGROES — Continued 


18  R.   H.  Terrell 

17  J.   C.   Napier 

IT  Alexander  Walters 

16  Richard  H.  Boyd 

15  Charles  W.   Anderson 

15  William  S.  Braithwaite 

15  W.  S.  Scarborough 

13  John  Mitchell,  Jr. 

13  William  Pickens 


13  Henry  O.  Tanner 

13  Charles  E.  Young 

12  Charles  W.   Chestnutt 

12  R.   R.   Wright,  Jr. 

11  J.  W.  E.  Bowen 

11  R.    T.   Greener 

11  R.  E.  Jones 

11  John  R.  Lynch 

11  E.  C.  Morris 

1CT  Benjamin  F.  Lee 

9  Harry  T.  Burleigh 

9  Archibald  H.  Grimk£ 

9  J.   E.   Moorland 

9  Edward  H.  Morris 

8  John  Hope 

8  James  W.  Johnson 

8  Isaiah   T.   Montgomery 

8  William   H.   Trotter 

7  Charles    Banks 

7  Will  Marion   Cook 

7  Solomon  C.  Fuller 

7  T.   Thomas  Fortune 

7  Francis  J.   Grimke" 

7  George   C.   Hall 


Justice  Municipal  Court,  D.  C. 
Former  Registrar  U.  S.  Treas. 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Zion  Church 
Preacher  and  banker 
Former  United  States  Inter 
nal   Revenue   Collector 
Poet 

President  Wilberforce  Univ. 
Editor 
Dean,  Morgan  College 


Painter 

Lieut.   9th    U.   S.   Cavalry . 

Novelist 

Editor  and  preacher 

Teacher 

Teacher  and  politician 

Editor 

Politician  and  writer 

Preacher 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Singer 

Politician 

International  Secretary 

Y.  M.  C.  A. 
Lawyer 

President  Morehouse  College 
Writer 

Founder  of  Negro  town 
Editor  and  agitator 
Cashier  Negro  bank 
Musician 

Physician 
Editor 

Preacher 
Physician 


mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

Negro  and 

Indian  and 

possibly 

white 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race 


209 


THE  FOREMOST  AMERICAN  NEGROES — Continued 


7  I.  Garland  Penn 

7  W.  T.  Vernon 

7  C.  T.  Williams 

7  Bert  Williams 

6  E.  E.  Just 

6  C.  V.  Roman 

6  T.  G.  Steward 

5  Roscoe  C.  Bruce 

5  C.  S.  Smith 

4  Ira  T.  Bryant 

4  John  E.  Bush 

4  George  W.  Clinton 

4  William  Henry  Crogman 

4  J.   C.   Dancy 

4  F.  A.  Dennison 

4  John    R.    Hawkins 

4  J.  W.   Hood 

4  George  E.  Haynes 

4  John  Hurst 

4  H.  T.  Kealing 

4  P.   B.   S.  Pinchback 

4  R.  L.   Smith 

4  C.  G.  Woodson 

3  C.  E.  Bentley 

3  R.  E.  Church,  Jr. 

3  Levi  J.  Coppin 

3  B.  J.  Davis 

3  B.  O.  Davis 

3  J.   Rosamond  Johnson 

3  L.  G.  Jordan 

3  W.  E.  King 

3  Fred  R.  Moore 

3  N.  F.  Mossell 

3  H.  H.  Proctor 

3  R.  C.  Ransom 

3  E.  P.  Roberts 


Preacher  mulatto 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  black 

Preacher  mulatto 

Comedian  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 
Superintendent  Negro  schools 

of  Washington,   D.   C.  mulatto 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 
Secretary    A.    M.    E.    S.    S. 

Union  mulatto 
Lodge  official  mulatto 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Zion  Church  black 
Teacher  mulatto 
Former    United    States    Re 
corder  of  Deeds  mulatto 
Lawyer  mulatto 
Teacher  mulatto 

and  Indian 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Zion  Church  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 
President     Western     Reserve 

University  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

Business  man  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Dentist  mulatto 

Memphis,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Preacher  mulatto 

Editor  mulatto 

Lieut.  10th  U.  S.  Cavalry  mulatto 

Pianist  mulatto 

Preacher  mulatto 

Editor  mulatto 

Editor  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

Preacher  mulatto 

Editor  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 


210 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


THE  FOREMOST  AMERICAN  NEGROES — Continued 


3  I.  B.  Scott 

3  Charles  Henry  Turner 

3  Ralph  W.  Tyler 

2  R.  A.  Carter 

2  George  W.  Carver 

2  Nick  Chiles 

2  George  W.  Cook 

2  S.  E.  Courtney 

2  M.  W.  Dogan 

2  J.  E.  Ford 

2  S.  W.  Green 

2  Sutton  E.  Griggs 

2  W.  J.  Hale 


2  Ferdinand   Havis 

2  A.  F.  Herndon 

2  W.  A.  Hunton 

2  John  T.  Jenifer 

2  C.  F.  Johnson 

2  H.  T.  Johnson 

2  J.  Albert  Johnson 

2  Scipio  H.  Jones 

2  Warren  Logan 

2  Christopher  Perry 

2  Benjamin  T.  Tanner 

2  Evans   Tyree 

2  J.  Milton  Waldron 

2  W.  A.  Warfield 

2  George  H.  White 

2  W.  T.  B.  Williams 

2  Monroe  N.  Work 

2  Nathan  B.  Young 


Preacher  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Former  Auditor  U.  S.  Navy  mulatto 

Bishop  C.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 

Teacher  black 

Editor  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

President    Wiley    University  mulatto 

Preacher  mulatto 

Lodge  official  mulatto 

Preacher  mulatto 
President  of  Industrial 

School  mulatto 
Grocer  mulatto 
Barber  and  Insurance  Agent  mulatto 
Intern.  Sec'y  Y.  M.  C.  A.  mulatto 
Preacher  mulatto 
Physician  mulatto 
Editor  black 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 
President  Ark.  Negro  Busi 
ness  League  mulatto 
Treasurer,  Tuskegee  Institute  mulatto 
Newspaper  writer  mulatto 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church  black 
Preacher  mulatto 
Physician  mulatto 
Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 
Teacher  mulatto 
Editor,  Negro  Year  Book  mulatto 
President  of  Industrial 

School  mulatto 


It  will  have  been  observed  that  in  the  foregoing  lists 
there  has  been  a  frequent  repetition  of  certain  names.  The 
names  of  Douglass,  Washington  and  H.  O.  Tanner,  for  ex 
ample,  each  appears  eight  times,  that  of  Dunbar  seven  times, 
that  of  Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters  six  times  and  a  number  of 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  211 

other  names  appear  two  or  more  times  each.  Making  cor 
rection  for  these  duplications  and  omitting  the  list  com 
piled  by  Gregoire  as  having  nothing  more  than  an  antiqua 
rian  interest  or  value  there  remain  the  names  of  two  hun 
dred  and  forty-six  individuals.  Of  this  total,  two  hundred 
and  twenty-two  are  the  names  of  men  and  twenty-four  the 
names  of  women.  Of  the  twenty-four  women  two  were  black 
and  twenty-two  mulattoes.  Of  the  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
two  men,  the  ancestry  of  three  was  not  determined.  Of  the 
two  hundred  and  nineteen  remaining  names  fourteen  are  of 
men  who  are  full-blooded  or  nearly  full-blooded  Negroes. 
Two  hundred  and  five  are  names  of  mulattoes.  Thus  of  the 
total  of  two  hundred  and  forty-six  persons  considered,  two 
hundred  and  twenty-seven  are  mulattoes,  sixteen  are  black 
and  three  are  unknown. 

These  data  thrown  into  tabular  form  follow  (p.  212)  : 
Of  the  two  hundred  and  forty-six  persons  so  far  consid 
ered,  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  pure  blood  is 
slightly  more  than  fourteen  to  one.  Attention  has  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  in  a  few  cases  there  is  a  disagreement 
concerning  the  mixture  of  blood.  In  such  cases,  the  indi 
vidual  is  classed  as  black  or  mulatto  according  as  the  evi 
dence  seems  to  favor  the  one  or  the  other.  Where  the 
weight  of  the  evidence  seems  equal,  the  individual  is  placed 
in  the  full-blooded  group.  The  number  of  questionable 
cases,  however,  is  so  small  that  error  in  their  classification 
would  not  materially  alter  the  general  figures.  If  all  the 
cases  concerning  which  there  is  a  reasonable  doubt  were  to 
be  classed  as  full-blooded  Negroes,  the  ratio  of  mulattoes 
to  full-bloods  would  still  be  approximately  eleven  to  one. 
If  all  such  questionable  cases  were  thrown  into  the  mulatto 
group,  the  ratio  would  be  somewhat  more  seriously  affected ; 
it  would  then  stand  at  twenty,  or  perhaps  twenty-five,  to 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


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The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race 

one. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Negroes  themselves,  these  lists  would 
seem  to  include  all  members  of  the  race — and  many  others — 
who  have  made  any  success  in  life  which  would  entitle  them 
to  mention  outside  purely  racial  or  local  circles.  It  in 
cludes  some  men  of  first-rate  intellectual  ability  and  a  few 
men  of  exceptional  talent;  perhaps,  a  few  men  of  eminence. 
But  in  the  first  stages,  at  least,  of  the  evolution  of  a  primi 
tive  folk,  great  men,  as  measured  by  the  standards  of  a 
more  advanced  group,  are  of  less  importance  and  of  less 
worth  than  is  that  larger  and  less  conspicuous  group  of  men 
and  women  who  rise  but  slightly  above  the  mass  of  their 
fellows.  The  exotic  is  interesting  and  important  as  an  in 
dication  of  the  latent  capacity  and  possibility  of  the  group ; 
he  is  not  the  power  that  moves  and  guides  the  group  in  its 
slow  and  tedious  evolution.  It  is  within  the  group  of  men, 
superior  to  the  great  mass  yet  not  so  far  in  advance  of 
them  as  to  form  a  divergent  and  hence  a  racially  useless 
group,  that  the  great  majority  of  the  individuals  mentioned 
fall.  The  number  of  men,  however,  considering  the  method 
of  their  selection,  is  perhaps  too  small  to  justify  any  gen 
eral  conclusion.  By  increasing  the  number  of  cases,  though 
this  necessarily  will  involve  men  of  a  lesser  degree  of  talent 
and  of  note,  and  will  thereby  tend  to  raise  the  proportion 
of  blacks  to  mulattoes,85  any  errors  due  to  sampling  will 
be  overcome.  The  tentative  ratio  of  fourteen  to  one  will 
therefore  be  allowed  to  stand  until  the  examination  of  larger 
groups  leads  to  its  modification  or  verification.86 

MThe  ratio  of  blacks  to  mulattoes  in  the  general  population  is  ap 
proximately  five  to  one. 

89  The  method  of  investigation  pursued  in  this  and  the  three  follow 
ing  chapters  was  first  to  assemble  as  inclusive  and  exhaustive  a  list 
as  possible  of  men  reputed  to  be  of  Negro  blood  who  had  in  some  way 
distinguished  themselves  above  their  fellows.  The  fact  that  they  were 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

mentioned  in  compilations  of  prominent  Negro  men  and  women,  in  books 
or  articles  by  or  about  Negroes,  in  lists  specially  prepared  for  this  study 
by  Negroes  of  wide  acquaintance  among  their  race,  in  lists  of  officials 
or  leaders  in  Negro  organizations,  in  lists  of  men  or  women  successful 
in  business,  professional  or  artistic  endeavor,  or  individuals  mentioned 
in  the  literature  as  men  of  importance,  was  taken  as  evidence  of  im 
portance  in  the  group.  In  this  way  it  is  believed  there  has  been  brought 
together  a  list  of  men  and  women  which  includes  every  person  of  any 
real  importance  whom  the  race  has  so  far  produced,  and  most,  at  least, 
of  those  who  have  in  any  way,  even  locally  and  in  very  minor  degree, 
been  important  men  among  their  fellows. 

The  problem  was  then  to  determine  which  of  these  persons  were 
pure-blood  Negroes  and  which  were  of  mixed  ancestry.  This  matter 
of  color  is  perhaps  the  most  tender  point  in  the  whole  race  question. 
Even  in  the  books  and  articles  that  purport  to  be  of  a  biographical 
nature  the  subject  is  seldom  mentioned.  Unless  the  man  mentioned 
is  strikingly  black  or  is  a  blood  relation  of  some  prominent  white  man 
any  reference  to  ancestry  seldom  appears.  Another  group  of  Negro 
writers — and  the  practice  is  followed  by  some  white  "students"  of  race 
matters — refers  to  every  individual  with  a  brown  skin  as  a  man  of  un 
mixed  Negro  blood.  A  certain  group  among  the  mulattoes  themselves 
tends  to  claim  as  mixed-bloods  all  those  individuals  of  enviable  dis 
tinction  and  refers  to  others  and  especially  to  those  of  unsavory  repu 
tation  as  black  Negroes.  Unreliable  as  it  generally  is,  all  this  refer 
ence  to  ancestry  was  collected,  compared  and  verified.  A  second  source 
of  information  was  the  printed  photographs  with  which  almost  every 
book  by  a  Negro  writer  is  profusely  embellished.  Where  the  photo 
graphs  seemed  to  be  genuine  and  showed  beyond  question  a  man  of 
mixed  blood  or  where  the  photograph  showed  a  man  who  was  appar 
ently  a  white  man  yet  called  Negro  in  the  legend  or  the  text  the  man 
was  tentatively  classed  as  a  mulatto.  Further  information  was  secured 
either  directly  or  by  letter  from  both  black  and  white  men  acquainted 
with  the  men  in  question.  In  one  or  more  of  these  ways  the  original 
list  was  separated  into  three:  those  who  are  pure-blood  Negroes  or  ac 
cepted  as  such,  those  who  are  notoriously  and  admittedly  mulattoes, 
and  those  individuals  whose  racial  ancestry  was  unknown  or  disputed. 
This  third  list  was  sub-divided  according  to  sections  of  the  country  and 
according  to  occupations  and  professions.  These  lists  were  then  sub 
mitted  to  reliable  men  in  the  section  of  the  country  represented  who 
were  engaged  in  the  various  occupations  and  professions.  After  fur 
ther  revision  the  remaining  list  of  names  was  again  submitted  to  Negro 
men  of  wide  acquaintance  among  the  race.  The  response  to  this  final 


The  Leading  Men  of  the  Negro  Race  215 

appeal  gave  little  additional  information  and  the  letters  accompanying 
the  return  of  the  manuscript  were  in  almost  every  case  characterized 
by  such  comments  as  the  following  quoted  verbatim  from  this  series  of 
letters: 

".  .  .  In  most  cases  I  do  not  consider  these  men  of  any  real  note. 
You  have  included  many  Negroes  who  have  not  risen  above  medi 
ocrity.  .  .  ." 

".  .  .  In  looking  over  your  list  I  find  so  many  of  mediocre  fame  that, 
I  am  at  a  loss  to  divine  to  what  use  you  intend  to  put  the  informa 
tion.  .  .  ." 

"...  I  am  interested  in  the  list  of  names  which  you  present  because 
among  them  are  hardly  any  of  the  best  known  colored  people  in  the 
United  States  or  in  American  history.  Perhaps  you  did  not  mean  to 
use  the  best  known  Xegroes  as  the  basis  of  your  inquiry." 

".  .  .  Your  list  is  altogether  beyond  my  knowledge.  Of  most  of  these 
people  I  have  never  heard.  I  fear  that  the  few  about  whom  I  can 
be  certain  will  be  of  very  little  service  to  you." 

When  this  stage  of  the  inquiry  was  reached  the  couple  of  hundred 
names  remaining  out  of  the  original  list  of  several  thousand  were,  with 
half  a  dozen  exceptions,  dropped  from  further  consideration.  They 
were,  in  the  opinion  of  the  best  informed  men  of  the  race,  names  of 
persons  of  absolutely  no  consequence  one  way  or  the  other.  In  a  few 
cases  the  names  of  these  men  were  retained  in  order  to  give  in  complete 
form  an  original  compilation. 

The  chapters  in  their  final  form  were  submitted  in  whole  or  in  part 
to  men  of  widest  information  on  matters  of  racial  interest  for  final 
verification. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE    HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY    OF    THE    NEGRO 

THREE  attempts  have  been  made  by  Negroes  to  write 
histories  of  the  race.  1  These  works  differ  very  widely 
in  method  and  to  some  extent  deal  with  different  periods. 
Two  volumes  by  Williams  cover  the  American  period  from 
1619  to  1880.  Brawley  treats  of  the  same  period  and 
brings  the  account  down  to  the  present.  The  volume  oi 
DuBois  is  for  the  most  part  an  attempt  to  build  a  tradi 
tion  and  to  supply  "history"  rather  than  an  attempt  to 
record  and  interpret  facts.  One  chapter,  however,  deals 
with  the  Negro  in  America  in  a  semi-historical  way. 

In  Williams's  narrative,  mention  is  made  of  some  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  different  men  and  women  as  being 
of  Negro  blood.  This  number  includes  several  white  per 
sons  erroneously  classed  as  Negroes,  a  list  of  individuals  who 
were  members  of  the  first  conference  of  the  African  Meth 
odist  Episcopal  church,  slaves,  Negro  sailors,  free  Negroes, 
fugitive  slaves,  Negro  criminals,  and  various  other  charac 
ters  with  no  better  claim  to  distinction.  To  consider  such 
persons  here,  not  only  would  cumber  the  ground  with  useless 
timber,  but  would  have  a  tendency  to  obscure  the  essential 
facts.  Where,  therefore,  it  did  not  appear  from  the  narra 
tive  or  from  other  sources  that  these  men  displayed  some 
degree  of  native  ability,  made  some  contribution  to  the  life 

*G.  W.  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America;  W,  E,  B. 
DuBois,  The  Negro;  and  G.  B.  Brawley,  A  Short  History  of  the  Amer 
ican  Negro. 

216 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro        £17 


of  the  period  in  which  they  lived,  or  were  persons  of  note 
in  their  own  day  and  circle,  they  have  been  eliminated  from 
consideration.2  After  eliminating  from  the  total  those  per 
sons  who  have  little  or  no  better  claim  to  eminence  than 
would  an  equal  number  of  individuals  taken  at  hazard  from 
the  general  Negro  population,  there  still  remained  the  names 
of  seventy  persons.  Of  this  number,  however,  the  names 
of  sixteen  have  appeared  one  or  more  times  in  the  lists 
given  in  the  preceding  chapter,3  and  so  are  omitted  here. 
The  names  remaining  are  as  follows: 


Granville  S.  Abbott 
John   Adams 
James   Enoch   Ambush 
Duke  William  Anderson 
E.  D.  Basset 

Charlotte  Beams 
Maria   Becraft 
Henry  Boyd 
John  M.  Brown 
R.  H.  Cain 
Lott  Carey 
Mary  A.  S.  Carey 
William  H.  Carney 
Eliza  Ann  Cook 
Alexander  Cornish 
Louisa  Parke  Costin 
William  Costin 


Preacher.     Writer  of  verse 
First  Negro  teacher  in  D.  C. 
Founded  Wesleyan  Seminary 
Baptist  minister 
Former  minister  to  Haiti 

Early  teacher  of  Negroes 
Early  teacher  of  Negroes 
Inventor  and  manufacturer 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 
Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 
Baptist  preacher 
Teacher  and  speaker 
Soldier  in  Civil  War 
Started  school  for  Negroes 
Started  school  for  Negroes 
Started  school  for  Negroes 
Bank  messenger 


mulatto 

mulatto 

black* 

mulatto 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black8 

black8 

mulatto 

mulatto 7 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

and  Indian 


aSee,  also,  note  86,  p.  213  above. 

*  Of  the  sixteen  names  dropped  for  this  reason  one  is  that  of  a 
black  man,  one  that  of  a  black  woman  and  fourteen  are  those  of 
mulatto  men. 

4  One  authority  called  Ambush  a  mixed-blood. 

'Several  authorities  called  Cain  a  mulatto. 

8  Two  authorities  called  Carey  a  mulatto. 

7  One  authority  called  Carney  a  full-black.  This  was  obviously  an 
error. 


218 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


John  Cuffe 

Ann  Dandridge 

V.  DeGrasse 
Louise  DeMortie 
William  F.  Dickerson 
John  H.  Fleet 
Miss  Charlotte  Forten 
Nicholas  Franklin 
Gabriel 

John   P.   Green 
Leonard  Grimes 
Mrs.  Anna  M.  Hall 
Alexander  Hayes 
Bishop  Loguen 
Benjamin  M.  McCoy 
Charles  H.  Middleton 
-"Charles  L.  Mitchell 
Lindsay  Muse 
Charles  Pierce 
James  Poindexter 
William  Paul  Quinn 
Thomas  Wright  Roberts 
James  Shorter 
Benjamin  Snow 
Austin  Stewart 
Marshall  W.  Taylor 

Alex  S.  Thomas 
H.  M.  Turner 
Nat  Turner 
Denmark   Vesey 
S.  R.  Ward 
T.  M.  D.  Ward 
A.  W.  Wayman 
Nelson  Wells 
Mary  Wormley 
William  Wormley 


Free  Negro  in  Mass. 

Mother  of  W.  Costin 

Physician 

Started  an  asylum  for  Negroes 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Mrs.  F.  H.  Grimke 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Insurrectionist 

Mass.  Legislature  1881 

Baptist  minister 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Started    school    for    Negroes 

Writer  and  preacher 

Preacher 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Member  Legislature  of  Mass. 

Started  a  Sunday  School,  D.  C. 

Preacher  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Baptist  preacher 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Cause  of  the  "Snow  Riot"  1835 

Author 

Preacher 

Photographer 

.Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Insurrectionist 

Insurrectionist 

Author 

Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

•Bishop  A.  M.  E.  Church 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

Started  school  for  Negroes 

First  A.  M.  E.  Conference 


mulatto 
and  Indian 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 8 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
black 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto fl 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto- 
Indian 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 10 
black 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


Richard  Wright 

8  One  correspondent  called  Dickerson  pure-black. 

"Two   correspondents   called   Quinn   a    full-blood    Negro. 

10  Ward  is  quite  dark.     He  was  called  full-blood  by  two  authorities. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro        219 

The  fifty-four  new  names  presented  in  this  list  are  in  ten 
cases  names  of  women — all  mulattoes — and  in  forty-four 
cases,  names  of  men.  Of  the  men,  five  are  given  as  full- 
blooded  Negroes.  Of  the  total  fifty-four  persons,  forty- 
nine  are  names  of  mixed-bloods,  and  five  are  names  of  black 
Negroes. 

In  the  volume  by  Mr.  DuBois,  the  names  of-  sixteen  Amer 
ican  Negroes  are  mentioned.  Two  of  these  are  names  of 
women,  and  fourteen  are  names  of  men.  Both  the  women 
and  three  of  the  men  seem  to  have  been  full-blooded  Negroes. 
Eleven  of  the  men  are  known  to  have  been  of  mixed  blood. 
Of  the  total  of  sixteen,  however,  thirteen  have  been  men 
tioned  in  one  or  more  of  the  previous  lists  and  are  omitted 
here.  The  three  names  remaining  are,  in  each  case,  names 
of  mulattoes.  They  are: 

James  Barbadoes  Anti-slavery  agitator  mulatto 

J.  C.  Gibbs  Reconstruction  Politician  mulatto 

William  Lambert  Underground    Railroad    agent        mulatto 

Brawley  mentions  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  individuals 
in  all  of  Negro  descent.  Twenty-four  of  these  have  been 
omitted  from  consideration  as  being  names  of  men  of  very 
slight  importance  even  in  their  own  time  and  circle.11  The 
names  of  sixty  of  these  have  appeared  in  preceding  lists 
and  so  are  omitted  here.12  Of  the  remaining  forty  names, 
thirty-one  are  of  men  and  nine  are  of  women.  Of  the  nine 
names  of  women  all  are  mulattoes.  Of  the  men,  twenty-six 
are  names  of  mulattoes  and  five  are  of  black  men.  Of  the 
total  list  of  names,  thirty-five  are  of  mulattoes  and  five  are 
of  black  Negroes.  The  forty  not  previously  mentioned  are 

11  One — Madison  Washington — seems  to  have  been  merely  a  literary 
character.  See  story  by  Frederick  Douglass. 

"Of  the  60  names  omitted  for  this  reason,  6  are  of  black  men,  3  of 
black  women,  47  are  mulatto  men  and  4  are  mulatto  women. 


220 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


as  follows: 

C.  C.  Antoine 
E.  M.  Bannister 
Thomas  Bethune 
Nellie  Brown 
Richard  L.  Brown 
Eugene  Burkins 
Anthony  Burns 
Cato 

Melville    Charlton 
James  D.  Corrothers 
A.  K.  Davis 
Robert  C.  DeLarge 
Oscar  J.  Dunn 
Silas  X.  Floyd 
Thomas   Garrett 
Monday  Cell 
Richard  H.  Gleaves 
Elizabeth  T.  Greenfield 
Mrs.  E.  A.  Hackley 
Hazel  Harrison 
The  Hyer  Sisters 
Elijah   Johnson 
Absolom   Jones 
Thorny  Lafon 
Bertina  Lee 
John  McKee 
J.    E.   Matzeliger 
Alice  Ruth  Moore 
John  Peters 
W.  B.  Purvis 
Joseph  H.  Rainey 
A.  J.  Ransier 
James  T.   Rapier 
Hiram  R.  Revels10 

William  A.  Sinclair 


Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

Painter  mulatto 

Musical  prodigy  black 

Singer  mulatto 

Painter  mulatto 

Invented  rapid-fire  gun  mulatto 

Well-known    fugitive   slave  mulatto 

Insurrectionist  mulatto " 

Organist  mulatto 

Newspaper  writer  mulatto 

Reconstruction   politician  mulatto 

Reconstruction   politician  mulatto 

Reconstruction   politician  mulatto 

Writer  of  folklore  mulatto 
Underground  Railroad  worker     mulatto 

Insurrectionist  black 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto   14 

Singer  mulatto 

Singer  mulatto 

Pianist  mulatto 

Singers  mulattoes 

Colonist  to  Liberia  mulatto 
First  Negro  Episcopal  Rector    black" 

Philanthropist  mulatto 

Sculptor  mulatto 

Philanthropist  mulatto 

Inventor  mulatto 

Wife  of  Dunbar  mulatto 

Married  Phyllis  Wheatley  black 

Inventor  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

United  States  Senator  mulatto- 
Indian 

Writer  black 


18  Two  correspondents  called  Cato  black. 
14  One  authority  called  Gleaves  black. 

18  Three  correspondents  considered  Jones  a  mulatto. 

19  Revels  came  from  the  Croatan  Indian  group.     See  pp.  81,  85  above. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 

A.  O.  Stafford  Principal  of  Negro  School         mulatto 

Roy  W.  Tibbs  Pianist                                            mulatto 

Meta  Vaux  Warrick  Mrs.  Fuller,  Sculptor                  mulatto 

Felix  Wier  Violinist                                          mulatto 


Among  the  books  dealing  with  the  Negro  in  America  are 
a  number  of  volumes  of  a  semi-biographical  and  personal 
sort  written  by  Negroes.  In  and  of  themselves  these  vol 
umes  are,  in  general,  of  very  slight  value  or  importance. 
But  they  do  each  serve  the  purpose  of  bringing  together  a 
group  of  men  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  compiler,  are  among 
the  important  men  of  the  race.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
writing  of  Negroes,  there  is  seldom  a  reference  made  to  the 
ethnic  composition  of  the  biographer's  subject.  But  as  the 
volumes  of  the  sort  generally  contain  numerous  photo 
graphic  reproductions,  it  is  often  possible  to  form  from  them 
a  fairly  accurate  judgment  concerning  the  racial  ancestry 
of  the  men  discussed.  A  summary  of  some  of  these  books 
will  throw  additional  light  upon  the  present  problem. 

The  volume  by  Gibson  and  Crogman1*  contains  bio 
graphical  sketches  of  a  large  number  of  men  and  women 
of  Negro  blood.  In  nearly  one  hundred  cases,  the  sketches 
are  accompanied  by  photographs  of  the  men  and  women.19 

17  See  W.  F.  O'Donnell,  "Meta  Vaux  Warrick.     Sculptor  of  Horrors." 
The  World  To-day,  Vol.  13,  pp.  1139-45.     Miss  Warrick  claims  to  be 
descended  from  an  African  princess. 

18  J.  W.  Gibson  and  W.  H.  Crogman,  The  Colored  American.     The 
fact  that  a  book  is  referred  to  is  not  to  be  taken  as  an  endorsement 
of  the   work.     The   volume   of  Gibson   and   Crogman,    for  example,   is 
absolutely  devoid  of  any  merit. 

"It  is  not  to  be  assumed  here  or  elsewhere  that  a  judgment  as  to 
a  man's  ethnic  ancestry  rests  solely  upon  the  interpretation  of  a  printed 
photograph.  Unless  the  evidence  of  racial  intermixture  is  so  strikingly 
obvious  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  error  other  sources  of  infor 
mation  have  been  resorted  to.  Where  positive  evidence  could  not  be 
obtained  or  where  the  evidence  obtained  was  conflicting  the  man  has 


222  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Sixty-four  of  the  photographs  are  of  men,  and  thirty-three 
are  of  women.  Of  the  men,  one  photograph  is  that  of  a 
black  man  and  four  others  are  of  men  who  are  black,  though 
possibly  not  pure-blooded  Negroes.  The  remaining  fifty- 
nine  are  photographs  of  mulattoes.  Of  the  women,  two  pho 
tographs  are  of  dark  individuals  who  for  present  purposes 
are  classed  as  black  though  purity  of  blood  is  not  a  cer 
tainty  in  either  case.  Thirty-two  of  the  men  and  sixteen 
of  the  women  have  been  previously  mentioned,  so  are  dropped 
from  the  list.20  Forty-nine  names  remain.  Of  these,  thirty- 
two  are  of  men,  three  of  which  are  of  black  men  and  twenty- 
nine  of  mulattoes.  Of  the  seventeen  names  of  women,  two 
are  of  Negroes  and  fifteen  are  of  mulattoes.  The  list  of 
names,  omitting  those  which  have  appeared  previously,  is  as 
follows : 

J.  W.  Adams  mulatto 

Rev.  W.   G.   Alexander  mulatto 

Dr.  J.  B.  Banks  mulatto 

Miss  Ella  D.  Barrier  mulatto 

Henry    Black  mulatto 

Rev.  E.  R.  Carter  mulatto 

A.  C.  Cornell  mulatto 

Mrs.   W.   M.   Coshburn  mulatto 

Walter  M.  Coshburn  mulatto 

Prof.  W.  H.  Council  black 

William    Custalo  mulatto 

J.  H.  Darden  mulatto 

Mrs.  L.  A.  Davis  mulatto 

Louis    Earnest  black 

Miss   Hattie   Gibbs  mulatto 

Nora  A.  Gordon  mulatto 

been  classed  as  a  full-blood  Negro  or  as  a  mulatto  depending  upon 
whether  the  bulk  of  the  evidence  favored  the  presumption  of  pure  or 
mixed  blood.  Special  attention  is  called  to  such  cases. 

20 Two  of  the  names  dropped  for  this  reason  are  of  black  Negroes; 
the  other  names,  twenty-eight  of  men  and  fourteen  of  women,  are  those 
of  persons  of  mixed  blood. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 


E.   Hansberry 

Prof.  W.  E.  Holmes 

Mrs.  Emma  T.  Hort 

Hon.    S.   J.   Jenkins 

James   Kelly 

Horace    King 

W.   W.   King 

M.   N.    King 

J.  T.  King 

G.   H.  King 

M.  J.  Lehman 

Rev.  W.  W.  Lucas 

Rev.    Leigh    B.    Maxwell 

Prof.   J.  L.  Murray 

Rev.  Cyrus  Myers 

Rev.  M.   W.  D.  Norman 

Miss    Ida    Platt 

Mrs.  Mary  Rice  Phelps 

B.  F.  Powell 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Robinson 

Rev.  D.  J.  Sanders 

Dr.   B.   E.   Scruggs 

Huston  Singleton 

Albretta  Moore  Smith 

Charity  Still 

D.   A.   Straker 

Lillian  J.  B.  Thomas 

Mrs.   Margaret  Washington 

Rev.  W.  B.  West 

Miss    Emma   Rose   Williams 

Mrs.  D.  H.  Williams 

Mrs.   Fannie   Barrier  Williams 

Mrs.  Sylvanie  F.  Williams 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


M.  W.  Gibbs  21  in  the  preface  to  his  volume  22  says : 

I  have  aimed  to  give  an  added  interest  to  the  narra 
tive  by  embellishing  its  pages  with  portraits  of  men 
who  have  gained  distinction  in  various  fields,  .  .  . 


"  Gibbs  was  a  mulatto. 
"Shadow  and  Light. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

He  gives  in  all  the  photographs  of  thirty  men.  Of  these, 
one  is  that  of  a  full-blooded  Negro.23  Three  are  men  con 
cerning  whose  racial  ancestry  there  may  be  a  reasonable 
doubt.24  The  remaining  twenty-six  are  beyond  all  question 
men  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  white  intermixture 
and  frequently  with  only  a  trace  of  Negro  blood.  Nineteen 
of  the  names  have  appeared  in  preceding  groups.25  The 
remaining  eleven  are  as  follows: 

Joseph  A.   Booker  black 

William  Calvin  Chase  mulatto 

W.    B.   Derrick  black 

A.  Bishop  Grant  mulatto 

John   Green  mulatto 

William    H.    Hunt  mulatto 

I.   G.   Ish  mulatto 

Chester  W.  Keatts  mulatto 

James    B.    Parker  mulatto 

William   A.   Pledger  mulatto 

J.  P.  Robinson  black 

Dr.  D.  W.  Gulp,  a  mulatto  physician  of  Palatka,  Florida, 
compiled  and  published  in  1902  a  volume  of  essays  26  by  one 
hundred  American  Negroes.  The  volume  is  chiefly  notable 
for  the  fact  that  it  contains  full  page  photographs  of  each 
of  the  one  hundred  contributors.  Of  the  book  and  the  writ 
ers  the  compiler  himself  says :  27 

33  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar. 

34  Rev.  J.  A.  Booker,  Bishop  W.  B.  Derrick  and  Rev.  J.  P.  Robinson. 
The  latter  may  be  a  man  of  unmixed  Negro  blood;  the  two  former  are 
probably  men   of  mixed   blood.     All   three   are   dark   as  to  color   and 
have   the   characteristic   rough    features   of  the   African   though   in   no 
case  of  an  extreme  sort. 

28  Of  the  nineteen  names  omitted  for  this  reason,  one  is  that  of  a 
full-blood  Negro  and  eighteen  are  names  of  mulattoes. 

39  Twentieth  Century  Negro  Literature  or  Cyclopedia  of  Thought  by 
One  Hundred  of  America's  Greatest  Negroes. 

71  Preface,  pp.  6,  10. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 

This  is  the  only  book  in  which  there  is  such  a  mag 
nificent  array  of  Negro  talent.  Other  books  of  a  bi 
ographical  character  are  objected  to,  by  intelligent 
people  who  have  read  them,  on  the  ground  that  they 
contain  too  few  sketches  of  scholarly  Negroes,  and  too 
many  of  Negroes  of  ordinary  ability.  .  .  .  But  it  is 
not  to  be  understood  that  the  one  hundred  men  and 
women  mentioned  in  this  book  are  the  only  Negro 
scholars  in  this  country.  So  far  from  this,  there  are 
hundreds  of  other  Negroes  who  are  as  scholarly,  as 
prominent  and  as  active  in  the  work  of  uplifting  their 
race  as  the  one  hundred  herein  given.  .  .  . 

The  writers  of  this  book  are  one  hundred  of  the 
most  scholarly  and  prominent  Negroes  in  America. 

Of  the  one  hundred  contributors  to  the  volume,  twelve  are 
women  and  eighty-eight  are  men.  The  women  are  in  each  case 
mulattoes.  Of  the  eighty-eight  men,  seventy-six  are  clearly 
and  obviously  men  of  mixed  blood.  Of  the  twelve  remaining, 
all  are  "black"  men  though  probably  not  more  than  four 
are  men  of  unmixed  Negro  blood.  Omitting  twenty-seven 
men  and  three  women  whose  names  have  appeared  in  earlier 
pages,28  the  list  is  as  follows : 

J.  H.  Anderson  Minister,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  mulatto 

P.  G.  Atkins  President  Industrial   School  mulatto 

H.  E.  Baker  Clerk  in  U.  S.  Patent  Office  mulatto 

J.  D.  Bibb  Teacher,  Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

E.  L.  Blackshear  President  Industrial  School  mulatto 

Mrs.  Ariel  Bowen  Atlanta,   Ga.  mulatto 

Mrs.  Rosa  D.  Bowser  Teacher,    Richmond,   Va.  mulatto 

E.  M.  Brawley  Baptist  preacher  mulatto 

Geo.  F.  Braggs,  Jr.  Rector  Episcopal  Church  mulatto 

W.  H.  Brooks  Baptist  preacher  mulatto 

S.  N.  Brown  Preacher  mulatto 

Henry  R.   Butler  Physician  mulatto 

W.  D.  Chappelle  Preacher,  A.  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 

38  Of  the  SO  names  omitted  for  this  reason,  5  are  of  full-blood  Ne 
groes,  29  of  men  of  mixed  blood  and  3  of  women  of  mixed  blood. 


226 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


J.  M.  Cox 

J.  W.  Cromwell 

D.  W.  Davis 

I.  D.  Davis 

Mrs.  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar 

L.  B.  Ellerson 

J.  R.  Francis 

A.  U.    Frierson 
J.  W.  Gilbert 
M.  W.  Gilbert 
G.  A.  Goodwin 
N.  W.  Harllee 
W.  H.  Heard 
J.  T.  Hewin 
Andrew  F.  Hilyer 
H.   A.   Hunt 

Miss  Lena  T.  Jackson 

J.  Q.  Johnson 

J.  W.  Johnson 

J.  H.  Jones 

T.  W.  Jones 

D.  J.  Jordan 

S.  Kerr 

George  L.   Knox 

W.  I.  Lewis 

Mrs.  Warren  Logan 

R.  S.  Lovinggood 

Mrs.  Lena  Mason 

M.  C.  B.  Mason 

G.  M.  McClellan 

J.  H.  Morgan 

G.  W.  Murray 

D.  W.  Olney 

W.  E.  Partee 

B.  H.  Peterson 
Mrs.  Pettey 

J.  R.  Porter 

I.  L.  Purcell 

A.  St.  George  Richardson 

G.  T.  Robinson 


President  of  College 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Baptist  preacher 

Presbyterian   preacher 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Preacher,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

Physician  and  Surgeon 

Teacher,  Biddle  University 

Teacher,  Paine  College 

Baptist  preacher 

Teacher,  Atlanta  Baptist  College 

Teacher,  Dallas,  Texas 

Preacher,   Atlanta,  Ga. 

Lawyer,  Richmond,  Va. 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Teacher,  Biddle  University 

Teacher,   Nashville 

Preacher 

Teacher,    Jacksonville,    Fla. 

Teacher 

Business  man,  Chicago 

Teacher,  Morris  Brown  College 

Rector  Episcopal  Church 

Editor 

Newspaper  reporter 

Tuskegee    Institute 

President  of  College 

Hannibal,  Mo. 

Preacher 

Teacher,  Louisville,   Ky. 

Preacher,  Bordentown,  N.  J. 

Lawyer,  Providence,  S.  C. 

Dentist,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Preacher,  Richmond,  Va. 

Teacher,  Tuskegee  Institute 

Newbern,   N.   C. 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

Lawyer,  Pensacola,  Fla. 

President  of  College 

Attorney,  Nashville,  Tenn. 


mulatt  o 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatl  o 

mulatt  o 

mulatt  o 

black 

mulatl  o 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black  * 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 


39  Opinion  is  divided  as  to  whether  he  should  be  called  a  Negro  or  a 
mulatto.     He  is  a  brown  skinned  man. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 

R.  G.  Robinson  Principal  LaGrange  Academy         mulatto 

Mrs.  M.  E.  C.  Smith  Teacher,  Jacksonville,  Fla.  mulatto 

R.  S.  Smith  Lawyer,  Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Prof.  J.  H.  Smythe  President  of  Reformatory  mulatto 

Mrs.  Rosetta  D.  Sprague         Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

James    Storum  Teacher,  Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Mary  B.  Talbert  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  mulatto 

T.   W.   Talley  Teacher,  Tuskegee  Institute  mulatto 

R.  W.  Thompson  Editor  mulatto 

T.  de  S.  Tucker  Teacher,  Baltimore,  Md.  mulatto 

W.   N.   Wallace  Editor  mulatto 

O.  M.  Waller  Rector   Episcopal  Church  mulatto 

H.  L.  Walker  Teacher,    Augusta,   Ga.  mulatto 

J.  W.  Whitaker  Tuskegee    Institute  mulatto 

J.   R.   Wilder  Physician  and  Surgeon  mulatto 

J.  B.  L.  Williams  Pastor  M.  E.  Church  mulatto 

R.  P.  Wyche  Pastor    Presbyterian    Church  mulatto 

Of  the  seventy  new  names  given  above,  sixty  are  names  of 
men  and  ten  are  names  of  women.  Of  the  men,  five  are  black 
and  fifty-five  mulatto,  while  of  the  ten  women  all  are  mu- 
lattoes. 

Mrs.  Williams  30  gives  a  list  of  sixty  of  the  presumably 
best  known  members  of  the  Negro  race.  Thirty-nine  of 
these  are  men  and  twenty-one  are  women.  Six  of  the  men, 
while  possibly  not  full-blooded  Negroes,  may  be  fairly 
classed  as  "black."  Twenty  of  the  men  and  eight  of  the 
women  are  clearly  mulattoes.  The  remaining  thirteen  men 
and  thirteen  women,  while  doubtless  mulattoes,  have  all  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  Caucasian  race.  So  of  the 
total  list  of  thirty-nine  men,  not  above  six  can  be  said  to 
be  real  Negro  and  thirty-three,  at  least,  are  mulattoes.  Of 
the  twenty-one  women,  all  are  clearly  mixed-bloods.  Omit 
ting  the  names  of  twenty-two  men  and  fourteen  women 
which  have  appeared  before,31  the  list  is  as  follows: 

30  Fannie  Barrier  Williams,  A  New  Negro  for  a  New  Century. 

nOf  the  thirty-six  names  omitted  for  this  reason  twenty-two  are  of 


228 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Dr.  A.  R.  Abbott 

Lieut.  John   H.   Alexander 

Louis  B.  Anderson 

H.    E.    Archer 

Mrs.   Henrietta  M.   Archer 

Ferdinand  L.  Barnett 

Mrs.   Anna  J.   Cooper 

E.  J.  Cooper 

J.  Webb  Curtis 

Mrs.    S.    J.    Evans 

John   R.   Francis 

John  B.  Frence 

General  Maximo  Gomez 

Mrs.    Hart 

Mary  C.  Jackson 

Miss   Lutie   A.   Lytle 

William  M.  Martin 

Alexander    Miles 

J.  Frank  McKinley 

Ida  Gray  Nelson 

J.  F.  Wheaton 

Edward  Wilson 

N.    B.   Wood 

James  H.  Young 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


Of  the  twenty-four  new  names  in  Mrs.  Williams' s  list, 
seventeen  are  of  men  and  seven  of  women.  One  of  the  men 
is  black  or  nearly  so.  Sixteen  of  the  men  and  all  of  the 
women  are  mulattoes.  Of  the  twent}r-four  new  names  one 
is  that  of  a  black  Negro  and  twenty-three  are  names  of 
mulattoes. 

Mr.  DuBois,  in  a  volume  on  the  Philadelphia  Negro,32 
mentions  seventeen  men  of  Negro  blood.  Eight  of  the  num 
ber,  all  mulattoes,  have  appeared  in  the  foregoing  lists.  Of 
the  remaining  nine  names,  four  are  of  mulattoes.  These  are : 

men  and  fourteen  of  women.  Of  the  twenty-two  names  of  men,  five 
are  those  of  full-blood  Negroes  and  seventeen  of  mulattoes.  All  of 
the  fourteen  women  are  mulattoes. 

32  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  The  Philadelphia  Negro. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 


Robert  Adger 
Peter   Augustin 
Henry  Minton 
Stephen   Smith 


Furniture    business 

Caterer 

Caterer 

Lumber  business 


mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


Of  the  five  remaining,  there  is  nothing  recorded  or  even 
known.33  Of  the  whole  list  of  seventeen,  then,  at  least 
twelve  were  mulattoes  and  six  were  of  unknown  parentage. 
In  Booker  T.  Washington's  Life  of  Frederick  Douglass, 
a  total  of  sixty-nine  Negroes  are  mentioned.  Seven  of 
these,  fugitive  slaves  and  the  like,  are  dropped  from  con 
sideration.34  Of  the  sixty-two  names  remaining,  fifty-seven 
are  men  and  five  are  women.  Of  the  men,  two  are  black 
and  fifty-five  are  mulattoes.  The  five  women  are  all  mulat 
toes.  Thirty-three  of  these  names  have  been  listed  previ- 
ouslv.35  The  names  of  those  not  heretofore  mentioned  are: 


Grandmother   Bailey 
Anthony    Barrier 

Amon   C.    Beaman 
Hugh   M.    Browne 
Anthony  Burns 
Peter  H.  Clark 
Thomas  Coppin 
William  Crafts 
Mrs.  William  Crafts 
J.    Howard    Day 


Grandmother  of 

Fred  Douglass  mulatto 
Father  of  Fannie  B.  Williams    mulatto- 

U.  G.   R.   R.  agent  Indian 

Anti-slavery  Agitator  mulatto 

Founded  school  mulatto 

Fugitive  slave  mulatto 3fl 

Teacher  mulatto 

Agitator  mulatto 

Fugitive  slave  mulatto 

Fugitive  slave  mulatto 

Anti-slavery  agitator  mulatto 


33  Robert    Bogle,    Henry   Jones   and   Prosser   were   caterers.     Thomas 
Shirley  contributed  to  start  a  Negro  school.     The  fifth  man,  Juan,  was 
a  murderer. 

34  Booker   T.   Washington   calls  Lucretia  Mott   a   Negro.     This  seems 
to  be  an  error.     She  was  apparently  a  white  woman. 

35  Of  the  total  thirty-three  names  omitted   from  the  list  on  this  ac 
count,  twenty-nine  are  names  of  men  and  four  are  names  of  women. 
Each  of  the  four  women  and  twenty-eight  of  the  twenty-nine  men  are 
of  mixed  blood. 

"One  correspondent  called  Burns  a  full-blood  Negro. 


230  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

^-Martin  R.  Delaney  Anti-slavery  agitator  mulatto 

Thomas  L.  Dorsey  New  York  Caterer  mulatto 

Charles  R.  Douglass  Son  of  Fred  Douglass  mulatto 

• — H.  Ford  Douglass  Anti-slavery    agitator  mulatto 

.-  Lewis  H.  Douglass  Son  of  Fred  Douglass  mulatto 

George  T.  Downing  Delegate  to  President  mulatto 

Thomas  Downing  U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent  mulatto 

John  F.  Ganes  Teacher  mulatto 

Primus  Hall  Ante-bellum  teacher  mulatto 

William  Hollowell  Friend  of  Douglass  mulatto 

John  Jones  Delegate  to  President  mulatto 

Benjamin  Lundy  Anti-slavery  agitator  mulatto 

^William  E.  Mathews  Visited  President  Johnson  mulatto 

Stephen  J.  Myres  U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent  mulatto 

Charles  M.  Ray  Anti-slavery  agitator  mulatto 

William  Rich  U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent  mulatto 

A.  W.  Ross  Delegate  to  President  mulatto 

G.  L.  Ruffin  Teacher,  Massachusetts  mulatto 

Theodore  S.  Wright  Anti-slavery  agitator  black 

Of  the  twenty-nine  names  here  presented,  twenty-seven 
are  of  men  and  two  of  women.  Of  the  men,  one  is  a  full 
blooded  Negro,  and  twenty-six  are  mulattoes.  The  two 
women  named  are  mulattoes.  Of  the  total  twenty-nine 
names,  one  is  that  of  a  full-blooded  Negro  and  the  remain 
ing  twenty-eight  are  of  mulattoes. 

In  Oscar  Garrison  Villard's  Life  of  John  Brown,  the 
names  of  thirty  Negroes  are  mentioned.37  Some  dozen  of 
these  are  names  of  boys,  or  slaves,  or  Negro  neighbors  of 
Brown  who,  being  mentioned  only  incidentally  in  the  nar 
rative,  are  here  left  out  of  consideration.  Of  the  remain 
ing  eighteen  names,  two  are  of  women  and  sixteen  of  men. 
Of  the  names  of  men,  one  is  that  of  a  black  man  and  fif 
teen  are  of  mulattoes.  Of  the  two  names  of  women,  one  is 
that  of  a  black  woman  and  one  of  a  woman  of  mixed  blood. 
Ten  of  the  individuals  have  been  previously  mentioned  and 
37  Villard  is  of  course  a  white  man  but  his  volume  is  included  here 
because  of  the  group  of  Negroes  not  elsewhere  mentioned. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 

their  names  are  omitted  here.38     The  names  of  persons  not 
previously  mentioned  are  as  follows: 

Osborn   Perry   Anderson  One  of  the  "Men  at  Arms"  mulatto38 

James  M.    Bell  Friend  of  John   Brown  mulatto 

John  Anthony  Copeland  One  of  the  "Men  at  Arms"  mulatto 

Newby   Dangerfield  One  of  the  "Men  at  Arms"  mulatto40 

Jim  Daniels  Slave  in  Kansas  mulatto 

Shields   Green  One  of  the  "Men  at  Arms"  black" 

James  E.  O'Harra  United  States  Congress  mulatto 

Lewis  S.  Leary  One  of  the  "Men  at  Arms"  mulatto 

Of  the  eight  new  names  here  presented,  one  is  that  of  a 
black  man  and  seven  are  names  of  men  of  mixed  blood. 

In  the  volume  by  Carter  Godwin  Woodson  on  Negro  edu 
cation,42  are  mentioned  the  names  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
individuals  as  Negroes  who  had  some  part  either  as  teachers 
or  as  students  in  the  eduation  of  the  Negro  before  the  Civil 
War.  One  of  these  individuals  was  an  East  Indian  who 
seems  to  have  had  no  admixture  of  Negro  blood.43  He  is 
here  dropped  from  further  consideration  as  are  also  the 
names  of  some  half  a  dozen  who  are  simply  mentioned  as 
slaves,  and  a  goodly  number  of  other  persons  of  such  minor 
importance  that  they  were  unknown  outside  their  own  fam 
ily  group.  After  these  eliminations  one  hundred  and  seven 
names  remained.  Of  these,  eighty-eight  were  men  and  nine 
teen  were  women.  Of  the  men,  seventy-nine  were  mulattoes 

88  These  ten  names  include  one  black  woman,  one  mulatto  woman 
and  eight  mulatto  men. 

39  Also  known   as   Perry  Anderson  Osborn.     He  had  a  habit   of  re 
versing  his  name. 

40  Or  perhaps  Dangerfield  Newby.     His  father  was  a  white  man  by 
the  name  of  Newby. 

41  Of   John    Brown's    "Men    at    Arms"    sixteen   were   white   men    and 
five  were  Negroes.    Green  was  the  only  Negro  of  full  blood. 

43  The  Education  of  the  Negro  Prior  to  1861. 
"William  Appo,  musician. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


and  nine  were  black  men.  Eighteen  of  the  women  were  mu- 
lattoes  and  one  seems  to  have  been  a  woman  of  pure  blood 
Sixty  of  the  one  hundred  and  seven  names  have  appeared 
in  preceding  lists.44  The  forty-seven  not  previously  men 
tioned  are  listed  as  follows: 


John  C.  Anderson 

B.  W.   Arnett 

A.  T.  Augusta 

George  Bell 

James  T.  Bradford 

F.  L.  Cardozo 

T.  Morris  Chester 

Daniel  Coker 

J.  C.  Corbin 

Martha  Costin 

Garrison  Draper 

Charles   Henry  Green 

Robert  Harlan 

Josiah    Henson 

George  Horton 

William  L.  Jackson 

John  Thomas  Johnson 

John  S.  Leary 

Samuel   Lowry 

Martha   Martin  and  sister 

Mary  E.  Miles 

S.   T.   Mitchell 

J.    Morris 

Robert  Morris 

William  Nell 

Gowan  Pamphlet 

John   Prout 
Charles  L.   Reason 
Sarah   Redmond 


Musician  mulatto 

Teacher  in  Pennsylvania  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

Built  Negro  school  in  D.  C.  mulatto 

Caterer,  Baltimore  mulatto 

Studied  in  white  school  mulatto 

Student  at  Pittsburg  mulatto 

Teacher  in  Baltimore  mulatto 

Teacher  in  Kentucky  mulatto 

Teacher  in  D.  C.  mulatto 

Lawyer  in  Maryland  mulatto 

Slave  who  learned  to  read  mulatto 

Taught  by  master's  family  mulatto 

Fugitive  slave.     Preacher  black 

Slave.     Preacher.     Illiterate  mulatto 

Musician  mulatto 

Teacher,  Pittsburg  black 

North  Carolina  Legislature  mulatto 

Early  preacher  in  Tenn.  black 

Educated  slaves  mulattoes 

Teacher  in  Mass,  and  Pa.  mulatto 

Once  President  of  Wilberforce  mulatto 

Student   in   Charleston  mulatto 

Early  Politician,  Mass.  mulatto 

"Embellished  Negro  History" 46  mulatto 
Preacher    in    Virginia    about 

1800  black 

Teacher  in  D.  C.  mulatto 

Teacher  of  Negroes  mulatto 

Negro  school  girl  mulatto 


44  Of  the  60  omitted  for  this  reason  52  were  men  and  8  were  women. 
Of  the  men  3  were  black  and  49  were  of  mixed  blood.  Of  the  women, 
one  was  black  and  the  remaining  7  were  mulattoes. 

^Woodson,  Education  of  the  Negro,  p.  281. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro         233 


Fannie  Richards 

D.  R.  Roberts 

B.  K.  Sampson 

Mary  Ann  Shadd  (Carey) 

Thomas   Sidney 

John   Baptist   Snowden 

T.   McCants  Stewart 

Mother  of  Mary  C.  Terrell 

Father  of  R.   H.  Terrell 

Julian   Troumontaine 

George  B.  Vachon 

T.  P.  White 

W.  J.  White 

Ann  Woodson 

Emma  J.  Woodson 

James    Wormley 

Mary  Wormley 


Teacher  in  Detroit  mulatto 

Preacher,  Chicago  mulatto 

Teacher,  Avery  College  mulatto 

Teacher  in  Canada  mulatto 

Helped  build  school  house  black 

Preacher  black 

Studied  in  Charleston  mulatto 

Learned  French  and  English  mulatto 

Learned  to  read  when  a  slave  mulatto 

Teacher,   Savannah  mulatto 

Teacher,  Avery  College  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

Taught  by  white  mother  mulatto 

Taught  by  mistress  mulatto 

Teacher,  Avery  College  mulatto 

Student  in  D.  C.  mulatto 

Teacher,  D.  C.  mulatto 


In  Daniels's  46  study  of  the  Boston  Negroes  47  are  men 
tioned  some  men  and  women  of  the  Negro  race  of  more  or 
less  prominence  in  and  about  Boston  in  the  early  days.  This 
number  is  exclusive  of  some  dozen  or  score  of  individuals 
who  are  simply  mentioned  as  slaves,  of  children  and  of  ob 
scure  individuals  who  do  not  appear  from  the  text  or  other 
sources  of  information  to  be  persons  of  any  note  or  prom 
inence  in  the  community.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  considered,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  are  names 
of  men  and  twenty-three  are  names  of  women.  Of  the  men, 
fourteen  appear  to  have  been  black  or  at  least  considered 
so  by  people  who  recall  them.  One  hundred  and  eleven  are 
known  to  have  been  men  of  mixed  blood.  Of  the  women, 
one  was  black  and  twenty-two  were  mulattoes.  Of  the  one 
hundred  and  forty-eight  individuals  whose  ancestry  was 
traced,  fifteen  were  black  or  nearly  so  and  one  hundred  and 

"Daniels  is   a  white  man  but  his  book  is  included  here  because   of 
the  large  number  of  New  England  Negroes  whom  he  mentions. 
47  John  Daniels,  In  Freedom's  Birthplace. 


234 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


thirty-three  were  individuals  of  mixed  blood.  Forty  of  the 
names  appear  in  preceding  lists  and  are  omitted  here.4* 
The  names  of  those  individuals  who  have  not  been  mentioned 
heretofore  are: 


Mrs.  Agnes  Adams 
Isaac   B.   Allen 
Macon  B.  Allen 

J.  H.  Allston 
Philip  J.  Allston 
E.  H.  Armistead 

William    O.    Armstrong 
Powhattan    Bagnall 
J.  B.  Bailey 
Gertrude  M.  Baker 
Walden  Banks 

Jehial  C.  Beaman 
Edgar  P.  Benjamin 
Paul  C.  Brooks 

E.  E.  Brown 

W.  W.  Bryant 

Seymour  Burr 

Mrs.  Olivia  Ward  Bush 

Jacqueline  Carroll 

Julius  B.  Chappelle 

J.  Milton  Clark 

Jonas  Clark 

Bob  Cole 

Robert  F.  Coursey 


Organizer  of  Negro  women  mulatto 

Served  on  Governor's  Council  black  ** 
First  Negro  admitted  to  the 

bar  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 
Member   Negro    Business 

League  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 

Member  of  Congress  mulatto 

Minister  mulatto 

Taught  boxing  in  Boston  mulatto 

Teacher    in    Cambridge  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 

Pastor  A.  M.  E.  Z.  Church  mulatto 

Lawyer,  Boston  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 

Deputy  Tax  Collector,  Boston  mulatto 

First  Negro  official  in  Boston  black 

Soldier  in  the  Revolution  mulatto 

Negro  Club  woman,  Boston  mulatto 

Teacher,    Boston  mulatto 

Member  Mass.  Legislature  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Cambridge  mulatto 

Abolitionist,  Boston  black 

Comedian  mulatto 

Property  owner,  Boston  mulatto 


48  Of  the  40  omitted,  7  were  women  and  33  men.     Of  the  women,  one 
was   black   and   six   were   mulattoes.     Of  the   men,   2   were   black   and 
31  were  mulattoes. 

49  This  is  not  concurred  in  by  all  the  authorities. 
•°He  and  his  brother  were  called  "The  White  Slaves." 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro         285 


W.  Alexander  Cox 

Joshua  Crawford 
W.  E.  Crum 
William  Crowdy 
Thomas  Dalton 
Louise   DeMortie 
Mark  DeMortie 
Theodore   Drury 
Rev.  Henry  Duckery 
William  Dupree 
Hosea  Easton 
Joshua    Easton 
Eliza  Gardner 
C.  N.  Garland 
Nelson  Gaskins 

Julius  B.  Goddard 
George  F.  Grant 
Marjorie  Groves 
Charles  H.  Hall 

Charles  E.   Harris 

Gilbert  C.  Harris 
William  A.  Hazel 

Robert  Hemmings 
John  T.  Hilton 
M.   Hamilton   Hodges 
A.  H.  Hunt 
Billy  Johnson 
W.  C.  Lane 
George   Latimer 
Andrew  E.  Lattimore 
Joseph  Lee 
H.  Lewis 


Member  Negro  Business 

League  black 

Lawyer.     Politician  mulatto 

Minister  to  Liberia  mulatto 

"Prophet"  black 

Merchant  mulatto 

Teacher,  New  Orleans  mulatto 

Abolitionist  mulatto 

Opera  Producer  mulatto 

Office   holder,   Boston  mulatto 

Federal  appointee  mulatto 

Abolitionist  mulatto 

Mass,  anti-slavery  society  mulatto 

Organizer  of  Negro  women  mulatto 

Physician,  Boston  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 

Office  holder,  Washington  black" 

Dentist,  Boston  mulatto 

Teacher,  Boston  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 
House     of     Representatives, 

1894-95  mulatto 

Wig  manufacturer,  Boston  mulatto 
Draftsman       and      architect, 

Boston  mulatto 

Painter  in  Paris  mulatto 

Abolitionist,  Boston  mulatto 

Singer  in   Australia  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

Comedian  mulatto 

Physician.     Office  holder  mulatto 

Fugitive  slave  mulatto 

House  of  Representatives  mulatto 

Innkeeper,  Boston  mulatto 

Tailor,   Boston  mulatto 


"One  correspondent  considered  Crawford  a  full-blood  Negro. 

62  Questioned  by  one  authority. 

63  Hodges  is  a  dark  mulatto,  not  a  full-blood  Negro  as  is  frequently 
asserted. 


236 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


William  C.  Lovett 
George  W.  Lowther 

Geo.  Reginald  Margetson 
Napoleon    B.   Marshall 
John  Sella  Martin 
W.  Clarence  Matthews 
Cornelius  McKane 
Mrs.   Nellie  B.   Mitchell 
Clement  G.  Morgan 
William  G.  Nell 
Osborn  A.  Newton 
Dr.  Thomas  W.  Patrick 
Rev.  Thomas  Paul 
"Dr."  Peters 
Don    T.    Pinheiro 
Coffin   Pitts 
"Elder"  Plummer 
James  W.  Pope 

John  T.  Raymond 
Theodore  H.  Raymond 
William  L.  Reed 
Dr.  Isaac  L.  Roberts 
David   R.   Robinson 

David  Rock 
Stanley  Ruffin 

John  E.  Scarlett 

Rev.  M.  A.  N.  Shaw 
S.  William  Simms 

Blanche  V.  Smith 
Eleanor  A.  Smith 
Mrs.  Hannah  G.  Smith 


Officer    Negro    Business 

League 
House      of      Representatives, 

1883 
Poet 

Deputy  Tax  Collector 
Minister,  Boston 
Athletic    director 
Physician,   Boston 
Music  teacher 
Lawyer.     Alderman 
Father  of  William  C.  Nell 
Member  Common  Council 
Pharmacist,   Boston 
Early  abolitionist 
Husband  of  Phyllis  Wheatley 
Dentist.     West   Indian 
Old  clothes  dealer 
Minister,  Boston 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  * 

Minister  in  Boston 
Director  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
Deputy  tax  collector 
Physician,   Boston 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston 

Lawyer.     Physician 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston 

Member  Gen.  Colored  Associ 
ation 

Minister.     West  Indian 
Janitor.      Common      Council, 

Boston 

Teacher  in  Boston 
Teacher  in  Boston 


Organizer  of  Negro  women 

w  One  correspondent  called   Plummer   a  black  man. 
55  One  authority  called  Roberts  a  full-blood. 
60  Called  by  one  authority  "pure-Negro."     He  is  a  dark 
but  seems  to  be  of  mixed  ancestry. 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto" 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto  M 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto  5B 

mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto  6a 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


brown  man 


The  History  and  Biography  of  tlie  Negro         237 


Harriet    Smith 
Joshua  B.  Smith 
Mary  E.  Smith 
William  Stevenson 

James    Still 

H.  Gordon  Street 

Julian   Stubbs 

Robert   T.   Teamoh 

> — Barnes  M.  Trotter 
Dihdwo  Twe 
Walker 
Edwin  G.  Walker 

Walter    F.    Walder 

Mrs.   S.  I.  N.  Washington 

Charles  WT.  M.  Williams 

James  G.  Wolff 
James  H.  Wolff 

E.    I.    WTright 
Mrs.  Minnie  T.  Wright 
Butler  R.  Wilson 
Tola  D.  Yates 


Teacher   in    Boston  mulatto 

Caterer.     Abolitionist  mulatto 

Teacher  in  Boston  mulatto 
Member      Common      Council, 

Boston  mulatto 

Leader    following   war  mulatto 

Editor,    Boston  mulatto 
Office      holder,      Washington, 

D.  C.  mulatto 
House     o>f     Representatives, 

1916  mulatto 

Father  of  politician  mulatto 

Liberian   student   in    Boston  black 

Comedian  mulatto 
Legislature.     Son    of    David 

Walker  mulatto 
In  Liberia  mulatto 
Daughter  of  G.  T.  Downing  mulatto 
Clerk  of  Juvenile  Court,  Bos 
ton  black 
Clerk  under  district  attorney  mulatto 
Head    of   Massachusetts 

G.  A.  R.  mulatto 

Physician  mulatto 

Organizer  of  Xegro  women  mulatto 

Attorney  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 


Of  the  one  hundred  and  eight  new  names  here  presented, 
twelve  are  names  of  men  who  are  generally  considered  to  be 
full-blood  Negroes.  The  remaining  ninety-six  names  are  in 
all  cases  names  of  mulattoes.  Sixteen  of  these  are  of  mu 
latto  women  and  eighty  are  names  of  mulatto  men. 

Booker  T.  Washington  prepared  a  most  elaborate  com 
pilation  of  the  sort  that  we  are  considering  in  this  chapter. 
In  the  two  volumes  of  the  work,07  are  mentioned  nearly  four 
hundred  individuals  who  have  made  a  success  in  life  some 
what  above  the  average  of  their  fellows.  In  most  cases  the 

57  The  Story  of  the  Negro. 


238  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

success  is  not  great;  it  can  only  be  called  success,  in  fact, 
when  it  is  measured  by  the  low  level  of  efficiency  that  pre 
vails  generally  in  the  black  group.  But  even  the  small  de 
gree  of  relative  success  makes  these  persons  exceptional  men 
within  the  race,  and  this  is  the  matter  of  importance  here. 
Dropping  from  the  count  some  score  of  individuals,  in  most 
cases  slaves,  criminals,  children  and  the  like  concerning 
whom  there  is  absolutely  nothing  known  and  who  do  not  ap 
pear  from  the  text  or  from  other  sources  to  have  been  in  any 
way  important  persons,  there  remain  three  hundred  and 
fifty-one  individuals.  Of  these,  three  hundred  and  eleven 
are  names  of  men  and  forty  are  of  women.  Of  the  men, 
twenty-nine  seem  to  have  been  black  or  nearly  so  and  two 
hundred  and  eighty-two  are  known  to  have  been  men  of 
mixed  blood.  Of  the  forty  women,  six  passed  as  black  and 
thirty-four  were  mulattoes.  Of  the  total  three  hundred  and 
fifty-one  individuals,  thirty-five  passed  as  black  and  three 
hundred  and  sixteen  were  persons  of  mixed  ancestry.  Omit 
ting  the  names  of  persons  who  have  been  mentioned  in  pre 
ceding  lists  58  we  have  the  following  names : 

Lewis   Adams  Teacher,  Tuskegee  Institute  mulatto 
A.  R.  Abbott  Physician  mulatto 
William    G.    Allen  Published    "National    Watch 
man"  mulatto 

Ernest  Attwell  Business   Agent,   Tuskegee  mulatto 

Joseph  S.  Attwell  Preacher  mulatto 

L.  K.  Attwood  Bank  President,  Jackson,  Miss,  mulatto 

Maria  L.   Baldwin  Teacher,  Cambridge,  Mass.  mulatto 

John  J.   Benson  Farmer,    Alabama  mulatto 

William  E.  Benson  Real  Estate  dealer,  Alabama  mulatto 

E.  C.  Berry  Hotel  keeper,  Athens,  Ohio  mulatto 

Jesse    Binga  Real   Estate  Dealer,  Chicago  mulatto 

68  One  hundred  and  seventy  names  are  thus  omitted — 151  men  and 
19  women.  Of  the  men  14  were  black  and  137  were  mulattoes;  of  the 
women  one  was  black  and  18  were  mulattoes. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro         239 


James    Bond 
B.  Boyd 
Jack   Bowler 
Fellow   Bragg 
A.  M.  Brown 
Rev.  William  W.  Brown 
Henry  E.  Brown 
J.  H.  Bugg 
W.  P.  Burrell 
George  L.   Burroughs 
L.  L.  Burwell 
Hon.  J.  E.  Bush 
Bishop  J.  B.  Campbell 
Richard   Carroll 
Paul   Chretien 
Elijah   Cook 
Bishop  Elias  Cottrell 
Henry  K.  Craft 
Samuel    Crowther 
Boston  Crummell 

W.  D.   Crum 
Bishop  Curtis 

Austin  Dabney 

Sam  Dailey 

William  Howard  Day 

Jennie  Dean 
George  de   Baptiste 
Juan  de  Valladelid 
John   H.   Deveaux 

Rev.  Moses  Dickson 
Dr.   Sadie  Dillon 

C.  N.  Dorsette 


Berea   College    trustee  mulatto 
Physician,    Nashville  mulatto 
Insurrectionist  1800  black 
Free  Negro  tailor,  N.  C.  mulatto 
Physician,    Alabama  mulatto 
Organized  True  Reformers  mulatto 
Director   Y.    M.    C.    A.  black69 
Physician,    Savannah  mulatto 
Secretary  of  True  Reformers  mulatto 
U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent,  Illinois  mulatto 
Physician,    Selma,    Alabama  mulatto 
Lodge  official  mulatto 
Made  donation  to  Wilberforce  mulatto ' 
Founded  home   for  orphans  mulatto 
Father  of  free  Negro  in  La.  mulatto 
Undertaker,  Montgomery,  Ala.  black 
Founded    industrial    school  mulatto 
Tuskegee  Institute  mulatto 
First  native  Bishop  to  Africa  black 
Father  of  Alexander.    "Afri 
can  Prince"  black 
Collector  of  Customs,  Charles 
ton  mulatto 
54  Mass.  Regiment  in  Civil 

War  mulatto 

Soldier  in  Revolution  mulatto 

Donated  land  to  reform  school  black 
Published      "The      Alienated 

American"  mulatto 
Established  industrial  school  black 81 
U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent,  Michigan  mulatto 
Negro  Count,  Seville,  1474  mulatto 
Collector  of  Customs,  Savan 
nah  mulatto 
Founder  of  Fraternal  Order  mulatto  a 
First  woman  doctor   in   Ala 
bama  mulatto 
First  Doctor  in  Montgomery  mulatto 


89  Disputed  by  one  authority. 

90  One  authority  called  Campbell  "a  pure  Negro." 
81  One  correspondent  said  "dark  mulatto." 

"One  authority  considered  Dickson  a  pure  Negro. 


240 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Vice-President   Dossen 
Charles  R.   Douglass 
Dubuclet 

Alexander  Dunlop 
E.  F.  Eggleston 
Matilda  A.  Evans 
W.  R.  Fields 
John  S.  Gaines 
G.  W.  Gibson 
Henry    Gordon 
Sarah  Gordon 
Rev.  William  Gray 

Benjamin  T.  Green 
William  E.  Gross 
George   C.    Hall 
Prince  Hall 
R.  M.   Hall 
Fenton  Harper 

T.  N.  Harris 
.Tare  Haralson 
T.  S.  Hawkins 
Matt  Henson 
E.   M.   Hewlett 
L.  P.  Hill 
Mrs.  L.  Hill 
Richard    Holloway 
,T.  T.  Holly 
Harry  Hosier 
A.    Hubbard 

John  Hyman 
Deal  Jackson 
Jennie    Jackson 
John  Jasper 
Cordelia  A.  Jennings 
Mrs.  Mary  F.  Jennings 
Rev.   O.  C.  Jenkins 
L.    E.    Johnson 


Liberian    embassy  black 

Son  of  Frederick  Douglass  mulatto 
Physician  and  musician,  France    mulatto 

Northern  political  agitator  mulatto 

Preacher,   Baltimore  mulatto 

Physician,  Orangeburg,  S.  C.  black  ra 

Undertaker,   Savannah  mulatto 

Cincinnati  mulatto 

Ex-President  of  Liberia  mulatto 

Donation  to  Wilber force  mulatto 

Wife  of  Henry  Gordon  mulatto 
Organized  Savings  and  Loan 

Co.  mulatto 
Mound  Bayou  mulatto 
Caterer,  New  York  mulatto 
Physician,    Chicago  mulatto 
"Master"  first  Masonic  Lodge  mulatto 
Physician,    Baltimore  mulatto 
Married   Francis   Ellen  Wat- 
kins  mulatto 
Physician,  Mobile  mulatto 
United  States  Congress  black 
Physician  mulatto 
With  Peary  mulatto 
Lawyer  and  politician,  D.  C.  mulatto 
Founded    industrial   school  mulatto 
Wife  of  L.  P.  Hill  mulatto 
Free  Negro  of  Charleston  mulatto 
Bishop  of  Haiti  black 
Methodist    preacher  black 
Toronto  Board  of  Trade  mulatto- 
Indian 

United  States  Congress  mulatto 

Farmer,   Albany,   Georgia  black 

First  Jubilee  Singer  black84 

Illiterate  preacher,  Va.  black 

Teacher  in  Philadelphia  mulatto 

Teacher  mulatto 

Courtland,  Va.  mulatto 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 


68  Or  nearly  so. 

*'  The  authorities  about  equally  divided, 


The  History  and  BiograpJ^    of  the  Xegro 


Sol.    C.    Johnson 
J.  G.  Jones 
Wiley  Jones 
J.  A.  Kenney 
Lambert    family 
Bishop  Isaac  Lane 
Matthew    Leary 
Matthew  Leary,  Jr. 
Jefferson    Long 
S.   L.  Lugrade 
U.  G.  Mason 
Victoria   E.    Matthews 
Owen  McCarty 
Sam  McCord 
E.  H.  McKissack 

John  Merrick 

Thomas  H.  Miller 
Ben    Montgomery 
Thornton    Montgomery 
Albert  Morris 
Freeman    Morris 
Francis  J.  Moultry 
George  A.  Myers 
Charles  E.  Nash 
Owen  T.  B.  Nickens 
Peter   Ogden 
Keebe  Ossie 
Joseph  E.  Otis 
Dinah  Pace 
C.  W.  Perry 
I.  Garland  Penn 
John    Peterson 
Napoleon  Pinchback 
L.  M.  Pollard 
Maggie  Porter 
Joseph   C.  Price 
Charles  B.  Purvis 
Charlotte  Ray 
S.  C.  Redmond 


Editor  Savannah  "Tribune"  black 

Early  settler  in  Chicago  mulatto 

Business  man,  Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  mulatto 

Physician,  Tuskegee  mulatto 

Seven  musicians  mulattoes 

Founded  Lane  College  mulatto 

Father  of  politician  mulatto 

Reconstruction  politician  mulatto 

U.  S.  Congress  from  Georgia  mulatto 

Stock  holder,  Boley  Bank  mulatto 

Physician,  Alabama  mulatto 

New  York  mulatto 

Runaway  slave,  1773  mulatto 

Farmer  in  Alabama  mulatto 
Treasurer    of    Odd    Fellows, 

Miss.  mulatto 
Founder  Mutual  and  Provi 
dent  Association,  N.  C.  mulatto 
U.  S.  Congress,  S.  C.  mulatto 
Slave  of  Joseph  Davis  mulatto 
Slave  of  Joseph  Davis  mulatto 
Free  Negro  tailor,  N.  C.  mulatto 
Free  Negro  tailor,  N.  C.  mulatto 
Caterer,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  mulatto 
Barber,  Cleveland,  Ohio  mulatto 
Politician.  Reconstructionist  mulatto 
Teacher  in  Ohio,  1820  mulatto 
First  Negro  Odd  Fellow  mulatto 
On  last  ship  load  of  slaves  Mandingo 
Northern  Political  Agitator  mulatto 
Founded  Industrial  School  mulatto 
Business  man,  Boley,  Oklahoma  mulatto 
Physician  mulatto 
Principal  first  Negro  Normal  mulatto 
Brother  of  P.  B.  S.  Pinchback  mulatto 
Bank  director,  Savannah  mulatto 
Mrs.  Cole,  Detroit.  Singer  black* 
President  Livingston  College  black 
Teacher,  Howard  University  mulatto 
First  Negro  woman  lawyer  mulatto 
Physician,  Jackson,  Miss.  mulatto 


'One  correspondent  called  Mrs.  Cole  "Pure  Negro." 


The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 


L.  S.  Reed 
Frank  Reid 
Dow  Reid 
John  S.  Rock 
Mrs.  U.  A.  Ridley 
H.  K.  Rischer 
A.  W.  Ross 
David  Ruggles 
James  S.  Russell 
Thomas   Rutling 
Peter   Salem 

George  M.  Sampson 
Benjamin   Sampson 
James  D.  Sampson 
Thomas  Sanderson 
J.  M.  Sanifer 
Walter  Scott 
Victor    Sejour 
Pixley  Isaka  Seme 
Mrs.  Mary   E.  Shaw 
Ella  Sheppard 
Mr.  Sheppard 
W.  H.  Sheppard 
Mrs.  J.  A.  Shorter 
Alfred  Smith 

Charles  H.  Smiley 
James  McCune  Smith 
John   H.   Smythe 
John  C.  Stanley 
John    Stanley 
Alexander  Stanley 
Charles  Stanley 
W.  E.  Sterrs 
Carrie  Steele 
F.  A.  Stewart 
Peter  Still 

John  St.  Pierre 

St.   Benedict,  The  Moor 


Organized  Union  Benefit  Assoc.   mulatto 

Farmer  near  Tuskegee  mulatto 

Farmer  near  Tuskegee  mulatto 

Lawyer,  Boston,  about  1865  mulatto 

Brookline,  Mass.  mulatto 

Baker,  Jackson,  Miss.  mulatto 

Northern  political  agitator  mulatto 

U.  G.  R.  R.  Agent  mulatto 

Teacher,  Lawrenceville,  Va.  mulatto 

Jubilee  Singer  mulatto 
Soldier   in   battle   of  Bunker 

Hill  mulatto 

Teacher,  Tallahassee,  Fla.  mulatto 

Teacher,  Wilberforce,  Ohio  mulatto 

Published  The  Colored  Citizen  mulatto 

Associated  with  Prince  Hall  mulatto 

Farmer,  Alabama  mulatto 

Officer  Negro  Bank,  Savannah  mulatto 

Writer  of  verse,  Paris  mulatto 

Student  at  Columbia,  1907  Zulu 

Gave  money  to  Tuskegee  mulatto 

Mrs.  G.  W.  Moore.     Singer  mulatto 

Father  of  singer  mulatto 

Missionary  to  Africa  mulatto 

Wife  of  Bishop  Shorter  mulatto 
Successful   cotton   grower   of 

Okla.  mulatto 

Early   caterer,   Chicago  mulatto 

Early  physician  mulatto 

Minister  to  Liberia  mulatto 

"Barber  Jack."     Free  Negro  mulatto 

Son  of  John  C.  Stanley  mulatto 

Son  of  John  C.  Stanley  mulatto 

Son  of  John  C.  Stanley  mulatto 

Physician,  Decatur,  Alabama  mulatto 
Founded  orphanage  in  Atlanta  mulatto 

Physician,    Nashville  mulatto 
Fugitive    slave.     Brother    of 

William  Still  mulatto 

Father     of     Mrs.     Josephine  mulatto- 

Ruffin  Indian 

Palermo,  Sicily  mulatto 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 


D.  C.  Suggs 
R.  R.  Taylor 
James  C.  Thomas 

Mrs.    Lucy    Thurman 
John  S.  Trower 
Victor   H.   Tulane 
Benjamin  S.  Turner 
Denmark    Vesey 
Josiah    T.   Wall 
O:  S.  B.  Wall 
S.  R.  Ward 

J.  H.  N.  Waring 
Westons 

Heber  E.  Wharton 
George  Washington  Williajns 
Henry  Work 
Elizabeth  E.  Wright 


Teacher   in   Georgia  mulatto 

Teacher,  Tuskegee  mulatto 
Undertaker.     "Richest  Negro 

in  N.  Y."    '  mulatto 

W.  C.  T.  U.  Worker  mulatto 

Caterer,  Philadephia  mulatto 

Grocer,  Philadelphia  mulatto 

U.  S.  Congress,  Alabama  mulatto 

Insurrectionist,  1822  mulatto 

U.  S.  Congress,  Florida  mulatto 

Captain  in  Civil  War  mulatto 
Editor      "Imperial      Citizen," 

1848  mulatto 

Teacher,  Baltimore  mulatto 
Wealthy    family,    Charleston, 

S.  C.  mulattoes 

Teacher,  Baltimore  mulatto 

Minister  to  Haiti,  1888  mulatto 

Father  of  Monroe  Work  mulatto 
Founder    of    Voorhees    Ind. 

School  black 


Of  the  one  hundred  and  eighty  new  names  presented  in 
this  list,  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  are  of  men  and  twenty- 
three  are  of  women.  One  hundred  and  forty-two  of  the  men 
and  eighteen  of  the  women  are  of  mixed  blood.  Fifteen  of 
the  men  and  five  of  the  women  are  Negroes  who  seem  to  be 
of  pure  blood. 

The  analysis  of  this  semi-biographical  and  semi-historical 
material  has  given  in  all  the  names  of  six  hundred  and  twen 
ty-seven  individuals  not  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chap 
ter,  who  have  made  a  more  or  less  conspicuous  success  in 
life  as  measured  by  the  standards  of  the  Negro  race.  Five 
hundred  and  twenty-two  of  the  names  are  of  men  and  one 
hundred  and  five  are  names  of  women.  Of  the  five  hundred 
and  twenty-two  names  of  men  mentioned  four  hundred  and 
sixty-five  are  of  mulattoes  and  fifty-seven  are  names  of  black 
Negroes.  The  names  of  the  one  hundred  and  five  women 


244  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

divide  into  ninety-eight  mulattoes  and  seven  black  women.  Of 
the  total  six  hundred  and  twenty-seven  names,  sixty-four  are 
names  of  black  Negroes  and  five  hundred  and  sixty-three  are 
names  of  individuals  of  a  mixed  ancestry  (see  p.  245). 

Of  the  six  hundred  and  twenty-seven  persons  considered 
in  this  chapter,  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  pure 
blood  is  approximately  nine  to  one.  In  a  few  cases,  there 
was  not  full  agreement  among  men  acquainted  with  the  per 
son  in  question  as  to  whether  he  should  be  classed  as  a  man 
of  pure  or  of  mixed  blood.  Attention  has  been  called  to 
these  cases  as  they  appeared  in  the  text.  The  rule  followed 
in  such  cases  was  to  class  the  man  as  a  pure-blood  Negro 
unless  the  evidence  to  the  contrary  seemed  conclusive.  It  is 
believed,  therefore,  that  any  errors  of  classification  that 
may  appear  tend  to  make  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes 
of  pure  blood  appear  somewhat  smaller  than  is  actually  the 
case.  However,  any  error  in  classification  of  a  single  man 
or  even  a  dozen  or  a  score  out  of  a  list  of  over  six  hundred 
would  not  materially  alter  the  ratio.  Should  the  twenty 
odd  individuals  in  the  full-blood  group  concerning  whose 
purity  of  blood  there  has  been  question  raised,  be  placed 
in  the  mixed-blood  group  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  full- 
bloods  would  stand  slightly  over  thirteen  to  one.  Should, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  dozen  individuals  in  the  mulatto 
group  who  by  some  correspondents  were  called  full-blooded 
be  placed  in  the  full-blooded  group  the  ratio  of  mulattoes 
to  full-bloods  would  be  slightly  over  eight  to  one.  Any 
considerable  variation  from  the  findings  of  nine  mulattoes 
to  one  full-blood  Negro  in  the  books  analyzed,  would  imply 
a  shifting  from  the  definition  of  mulatto  accepted  for  the 
purpose  of  this  study.66 

"A  Negro  with  sufficient  admixture  of  white  blood  to  readily  distin 
guish  him  from  Negroes  of  pure  blood.  See  p.  11  above. 


The  History  and  Biography  of  the  Negro 


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CHAPTER  X 

THE    NEGRO    AND     THE    MULATTO    IN     PROFESSIONAL    AND 
ARTISTIC     PURSUITS 

THE  various  lists  given  in  the  preceding  chapters  prob 
ably  include  the  great  majority  of  the  Negroes  who 
have  shown  noteworthy  ability,  or  made  any  very  excep 
tional  success  in  life.  But  as  these  lists  were  for  the  most 
part  of  a  general  nature,  that  is,  groupings  of  men  and 
women  from  various  lines  of  human  endeavor,  it  may  be 
worth  while  to  consider  the  relative  success  the  black  Negro 
and  the  mulatto  have  had  in  some  of  the  specific  lines  of  en 
deavor.  For  this  purpose  we  will  consider:  I.  the  Army 
and  Navy,  II.  Politics,  III.  Inventions,  IV.  Medicine  and 
Dentistry,  V.  Law,  VI.  Education,  VII.  the  Ministry,  VIII. 
Literature,  IX.  Editors  and  Newspaper  men,  X.  Artists, 
XI.  the  Stage,  XII.  Composers  and  Musicians,  and  XIII. 
Business  men. 

The  Negroes  have  played  a  part,  albeit  no  very  conspic 
uous  one,  in  every  war  in  which  the  United  States  has  been 
involved.  In  the  Revolutionary  War,  Negroes,  both  slave 
arid  free,  were  found  on  both  sides.  Crispus  Attucks,  a  Bos 
ton  man  of  mixed  Indian,  Negro,  and  white  blood,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  man  killed  in  the  so-called  Boston 
Massacre.  In  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  es 
pecially  in  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  Negro  soldiers  were 
engaged  in  considerable  numbers.1  In  the  Civil  War,  espe- 

1  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  pp.  154-55. 

246 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          247 

cially  during  the  latter  stages,  large  numbers  of  Negro  sol 
diers  were  enlisted  in  the  Union  armies.2  While  the  Con 
federacy  consistently  refused  to  allow  slaves  to  be  employed 
as  soldiers  and  in  some  cases  refused  to  accept  the  proffered 
assistance  of  free  Negroes,3  the  Southern  armies  neverthe 
less  employed  a  considerable  number  of  Negroes,  both  slave 
and  free,  as  laborers,  and  a  few  free  Negroes  seem  to  have 
been  enrolled  as  soldiers.4 

The  Negro  Year  Book 5  mentions  three  men  as  having 
gained  some  distinction  in  the  Civil  War:  A.  T.  Augusta, 
Surgeon  in  the  Seventeenth  Regiment  United  States  Volun 
teers  ;  A.  W.  Abbott,  Army  Surgeon ;  and  H.  M.  Turner,  an 
Army  Chaplain.  All  three  men  were  mulattoes. 

Three  Negroes  have  been  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.6  They  were  in 
each  case  mulattoes. 

In  the  United  States  Army,  there  are  eleven  Negro  offi 
cers.7  They  are  in  every  case  mulattoes. 

Lt.  Col.  A.  Allensworth,  (retired)   Chaplain,  24th  Infantry      mulatto 
Major  W.  T.  Anderson,   (retired)    Chaplain,  9th  Cavalry        mulatto 

2  The  soldiers  seem  to  have  been  about  equally  divided  between  Ne 
groes  and  mulattoes.     The  55th  Regiment   of  Volunteer  Infantry,  for 
example,  had  a  total  of  980  enlisted  men.     Four  hundred   and  thirty 
were  mulattoes  and  550  were  apparently  pure  black.     The  black  men 
were  probably  two  or  three  times  as  numerous  as  the  mulattoes  in  the 
general  population.     See  Burt  G.  Wilder,  "The  Brain  of  the  American 
Negro,"  Proceedings  of  the  First  National  Negro  Conference,  p.  49. 

3  The  color  of  these  free  Negroes,  according  to  General  Butler,  was 
"about  that  of  Vice-President  Hamlin,  or  the  late  Mr.  Daniel  Webster." 
See  J.  P.  Ficklen,  The  History  of  Reconstruction  in  Louisiana,  p.  121. 

4  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  pp.  157-59. 
6  Ibid.,  p.  159. 

Henry  O.  Flipper  mulatto 

John   H.   Alexander  mulatto 

Charles  Young  mulatto 
T/6tU,  p.  161. 


248  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Lieutenant  Louis  A.  Carter,  Chaplain,  10th  Cavalry  mulatto 

Lieutenant  B.  O.  Davis,  10th  Cavalry  mulatto 

Lieutenant  J.  E.  Green,  25th  Infantry  mulatto 

Lieutenant  W.  W.  Gladden,  Chaplain,  24th  Infantry  mulatto 

Major  John  R.  Lynch,   (retired)   Paymaster  Indian  and 

mulatto 

Captain  G.  W.  Prioleau,  Chaplain,  9th  Cavalry  mulatto 

Lieutenant  O.  J.  W.  Scott,  Chaplain,  25th  Infantry  mulatto 

Captain  T.  G.  Steward,   (retired)   Chaplain,  25th  Infantry  mulatto 

Major  Charles  Young,  9th  Cavalry  mulatto 

From  all  other  sources  of  information  were  obtained  facts 
in  regard  to  twenty-six  other  men  who  hold,  or  have  held, 
military  positions  of  some  importance  in  the  regular  army 
or  in  the  National  Guard,  or  have  particularly  distinguished 
themselves  by  deeds  of  valor.  Of  these  men,  three  were  dark 
men ;  though  in  no  case  is  it  certain  that  they  were  Negroes 
of  full  blood.  The  other  twenty-three  were  in  ah1  cases 
mulattoes.8 

In  the  military  affairs  of  the  nation,  it  would  thus  ap 
pear  that  the  race,  so  far  at  least  as  offices  and  honors  go, 
is  represented  almost  exclusively  by  its  lighter- colored  mem 
bers.  Of  the  forty-four  men  mentioned  in  this  section,  forty- 
one  at  least  are  men  of  mixed  blood.  Nine  of  these  men  have 
been  previously  mentioned  in  other  connections.  Thirty-two 
of  the  remaining  thirty-five  men  are  mulattoes.  Throwing 
into  tabular  form  this  information  concerning  the  ethnic 
ancestry  of  these  members  of  the  race  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  a  military  way  we  have  the  following: 

8  In  military  affairs  Toussaint  is,  of  course,  the  one  conspicuous  ex 
ample  of  military  ability  among  the  members  of  the  race  so  far.  He 
was  probably  not  a  full-blood  Negro  though  he  was  identified  with  and 
led  the  blacks  as  opposed  to  the  mulatto  faction.  The  National  heroes 
of  Cuba — Gomez  and  Maceo — are  said  to  have  both  been  men  of  some 
intermixture  of  Negro  blood.  The  same  thing  seems  to  be  true  of 
Panco  Villa.  None  of  these  men,  however,  excepting  Toussaint,  dii- 
played  any  particular  ability  as  military  leaders. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          249 

Black  Mulatto  Total 

Soldiers  in  the  Revolutionary  War  Oil 

Soldiers  in  the  Civil  War  033 

Graduates  of  West  Point  033 

Officers  of  the  U.  S.  Army  0         11          11 

Other  Noted  Soldiers  3         23         26 

Totals  3         41         44 

Names  Repeated  099 

Corrected  totals  3         32         35 

In  the  Navy,  so  far  as  officers  go,  the  Negroes  are  not 
represented. 

The  Negro  has  played  no  very  conspicuous  or  important 
part  in  the  political  life  of  America.  For  the  most  part, 
he  has  been  barred  from  participation  in  politics.  Prior 
to  the  Civil  War,  speaking  generally,  he  took  no  part  in  the 
political  life  of  the  country.  The  emancipation  of  the  Ne 
gro  and  the  Reconstruction  following,  brought  into  prom 
inence  a  number  of  Negroes  who  passed  into  oblivion  with 
the  passing  of  the  Reconstruction  regime  and  the  restora 
tion  of  law  and  order  in  the  southern  states.9  Since  this 
period,  politics — except  in  a  very  limited  and  mostly  local 
way — has  all  but  ceased  to  be  a  field  of  endeavor  open  to 
men  of  the  race. 

Furthermore,  the  part  that  the  Negro  has  taken  in  the 
political  life  of  the  country  has  not  reflected  to  his  credit. 
Bruce  10  says : 

'"In  considering  who  and  what  are  representative  Negroes  there  are 
circumstances  which  compel  one  to  question  what  is  a  representative 
man  of  the  colored  race.  Some  men  are  born  great,  some  achieve  great 
ness  and  others  lived  during  the  Reconstruction  period.  .  .  ."  Paul 
Laurence  Dunbar,  "Representative  American  Negroes,"  The  Negro 
Problem,  p.  189. 

"P.  A.  Bruce,  The  Plantation  Negro  as  a  Freeman,  p.  72. 


250  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

.  .  .  Those  who  have  obtained  seats  in  the  Legisla 
ture,  have  won  no  special  reputation  for  practical  ca 
pacity  by  an  intelligent  devotion  to  business;  and  as 
they  are  generally  silent  members  or  wandering  and 
irrelevant  when  they  have  risen  to  their  feet,  they  have 
exercised  no  marked  influence  on  the  enactment  of  laws, 
except  by  the  votes  they  have  cast.  Indeed,  the  ma 
jority  have  not  been  at  all  superior  to  the  mass  of  their 
race  in  force  of  character  or  intellect;  many,  in  fact, 
have  been  inferior,  and  their  election  to  a  position  of 
so  much  responsibility  can  only  be  explained  on  the 
ground  of  accident.  The  prominence  of  the  office  they 
occupy  only  brings  out  into  the  broadest  contrast  their 
incompetence  to  represent  the  interests  of  their  own 
people,  much  less  advance  the  general  prosperity  of  a 
commonweal  fch. 

All  this  is  probably  true  and  exactly  the  same  thing  is 
true  of  the  country's  white  politicians. 

But  we  are  not  here  concerned  with  an  evaluation  of  the 
Negroes  as  politicians  further  than  to  point  out  that  they 
are  not  to  be  taken  as  representing  in  any  true  sense  what 
Mr.  DuBois  has  called  the  "Advance  Guard  of  the  Race,"  J1 
any  more  than  the  white  politicians  are  to  be  taken  as  rep 
resenting  the  highest  degree  of  the  honesty,  intelligence, 
and  public  spirit  of  the  white  community.  The  Negro  poli 
ticians  are,  however,  a  conspicuous  group  and,  as  such,  have 
been  selected  here  for  analysis  into  their  black  and  mixed 
elements. 

The  race  has  been  represented  in  the  National  Senate  by 
two  members — Hiram  R.  Revels  and  Blanche  K.  Bruce.  The 
former  was  a  Croatan  Indian  and  the  latter  a  mulatto. 

In  the  National  House  of  Representatives,  there  have 
been  twenty  members  of  the  Negro  race,  not  more  than  three 

11 W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Booklovefs  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  pp.  2-14. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          251 

of  whom  were  Negroes   of  even   approximately   full  blood. 
The  Negro  Year  Book  lists  them  as  follows: 12 


Richard  H.  Cain 

S.  C. 

43rd  and  45th  Congress  .  . 

4  years 

black 

H.  P.  Cheatham 

N.C. 

52nd  and  53rd  Congress. 

.  4  years 

mulatto 

R.  C.  Delarge 

S.  C. 

42nd    Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

R.   B.   Elliott 

S.  C. 

42nd    Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

J.  Haralson 

Ala. 

44th    Congress     

2  years 

black 

John  Hyman 

N.C. 

44th  Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

J.  M.  Langston 

Va. 

51st   Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

Jefferson  Long 

Ga. 

41st  Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

John  R.  Lynch 

Miss. 

42nd,  44th  &  47th  Cong. 

6  years 

mulatto 

T.  H.  Miller 

S.  C. 

51st  Congress  

2  years 

mulatto 

G.  W.  Murray 

S.  C. 

53rd   and  54th  Congress. 

4  years 

black18 

Charles  E.  Nash 

La. 

44th  Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

J.  E.  O'Harra 

N.C. 

48th  and  49th  Congress  .  . 

4  years 

mulatto 

J.  H.  Rainey 

S.  C. 

44th  to  48th  Congress  .. 

10  years 

mulatto 

A.  J.  Ransier 

S.  C. 

43rd    Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

James  T.  Rapier 

Ala. 

43rd    Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

Robert  Smalls 

S.  C. 

44th,  45th  &  47th  Cong.  . 

6  years 

mulatto 

B.  S.  Turner 

Ala. 

42nd    Congress    

2  years 

mulatto 

Josiah  T.  Wall 

Fla. 

42nd,  43rd  &  44th  Cong. 

6  years 

mulatto 

George  H.  White 

N.C. 

55th   and   56th   Congress. 

4  years 

mulatto 

In  1869,  Ebenezer  Don  Carlos  Bassett,14  a  man  of  mixed 
mulatto  and  Indian  parentage,  was  appointed  Resident  Min 
ister  and  Consul  General  to  Haiti.  He  was  the  first  Negro 
given  an  appointment  by  the  Federal  government.  He  held 
the  position  for  eight  years. 

During  the  Reconstruction  regime  in  the  South,  several 

12  1914-1915,  p.  151. 

"Shufeldt,  not  always  reliable,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that 
Murray  was  a  black  man.  Murray  had  a  rather  unsavory  reputation 
having  divorced  his  Negro  wife  and  married  a  white  woman.  He  was 
later  convicted  of  forgery  and  sentenced  to  a  three-year  term  in  the 
penitentiary.  "Every  line  of  his  cannon-ball  head  was  modeled  on 
African  lines.  His  complexion  is  that  of  the  ace  of  spades,  and  his 
features  are  of  the  pronounced  negro  type.  .  .  ."  R.  W.  Shufeldt, 
The  Negro  a  Menace  to  American  Civilization,  p.  189. 

"Negro  Tear  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  152. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Negroes    attained    the   position    of   Lieutenant    Governors. 
These  men  were  as  follows : 15 


Louisiana 

C.  C.  Antoine 
Oscar  J.  Dunn 
P.  B.  S.  Pinchback 

South  Carolina 
R.    H.   Cleaves 
Alonzo  J.  Ransier 

Mississippi 

Alexander  K.  Davis18 


mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 


John  R.  Lynch  17  in  a  recent  volume  18  on  the  part  played 
by  the  Negro  in  the  Reconstruction  of  the  South,  mentions 
nineteen  men  prominent  during  the  period.  Four  of  these 
men  seem  to  have  been  black,  and  fifteen  to  have  been  men 
of  mixed  blood.  The  list  follows : 


Roscoe  Bruce 
Rev.  Noah  Buchanan 
T.  W.  Cardoza 
H.  C.  Carter 

A.  K.  Davis 

Frederick  Douglass 
Robert  Gleed 
Sam  Henry 
James  Hill 
H.  P.  Jacobs 
James  Lynch 

William  McCary 
I.  T.  Montgomery 


Son  of  Ex  Senator  Bruce  mulatto 

Republican  Convention  of  Miss.  1869  black 

Candidate  for  office,  Miss.  1873  mulatto 
Proposed  candidate  for  Lieut.  Gov., 

Miss.  mulatto 
Candidate  for  Lieut.  Gov.  of  Miss. 

1873  mulatto 
Politician  mulatto 
State  Senator  of  Miss.  black 
Pres.  of  Republican  Club  mulatto 
Candidate  for  Sec.  of  State  of  Miss,  mulatto 
Baptist  preacher  and  politician  mulatto 
Methodist  preacher.    Political  candi 
date  mulatto 
Signed  bond  for  J.  R.  Lynch  in  1869  mulatto 
Boliver  County,  Miss.  mulatto 


18  G.  W.  Williams,  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  p.  585. 

"Davis  was  a  candidate  in  1873  but  was  not  elected.  Mr.  Williams 
is  not  the  only  Negro  who  lists  him  among  the  Negro  Lieutenant  Gov 
ernors.  See  B.  T.  Washington,  Frederick  Douglass,  pp.  279-80. 

"See  pages  205,  208  above. 

18  The  Facts  of  Reconstruction. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits 

P.  B.  S.  Pinchbeck  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Miss.  mulatto 

H.   R.   Revels  United  States  Senator  Croatan 

Indian 

David   Singleton  Signed  a  bond  for  Lynch  in  1869  mulatto 

T.  W.  Stringer  State  Senator,  Mississippi  mulatto 

J.  M.  P.  Williams  Baptist  preacher.  Political  candidate  black 

J.   M.   Wilson  Member  of  Legislature,  Mississippi  black 

The  Negro  Year  Book  names  four  Negroes  now  holding 
federal  offices.19  These  men  are  all  mulattoes.  They  are: 

Charles  W.  Anderson  mulatto 

Collector  of  Internal  Revenue,  New  York  City 
James  A.  Cobb  mulatto 

Assistant  District  Attorney  for  the  District  of  Columbia 
Charles  Cottrell  mulatto 

Collector  of  Customs,  Honolulu,  H.  I. 
Robert  H.  Terrell  mulatto 

Judge  of  Municipal  Court,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Negro  Year  Book  names  two  Negroes  in  the  diplo 
matic  service  of  the  United  States.20  One  of  these  men  is 
a  Negro  of  pure  blood  and  the  other  is  a  mulatto.  They 
are: 

George  W.  Buckner  mulatto 

Minister  Resident  and  Consul  General,  Liberia 
Richard  W.  Bundy  black 

Secretary  of  Legation,  Liberia 

The  Negro  Year  Book  names  eight  Negroes  in  the  con 
sular  service  of  the  United  States.21  Two  of  these  men  are 
Negroes  of  pure  blood  and  six  are  mulattoes.  The  list  is 
as  follows: 

James  G.  Carter  mulatto 

Consul  at  Tamatave,  Madagascar 
William  H.  Hunt  mulatto 

Consul  at   Saint-fitienne,  France 

"Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  152. 
10  Ibid.,  p.  153. 
.,  p.  153. 


Tlie  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


George  H.  Jackson 

Consul  at  Cognac,  France 
James  W.  Johnson 

Consul  at  Corinto,  Nicaragua 
Lemuel  W.   Livington 

Consul   at   Cape   Haitien,   Haiti 
Christ6pher  H.  Payne 

Consul  at  St.  Thomas,  West  Indies 
Herbert  R.  Wright 

Consul  at  Puerto  Cabello,  Venezuela 
William  J.  Yerb 

Consul  at  Sierra  Leone,  West  Africa 


mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 


The  Negro  Year  Book  names  the  following  as  the  more 
important  political  positions  held  by  Negroes  during  the 
presidential  administration  of  William  Howard  Taft : 22 

J.  N.  W.  Alexander  mulatto 

Register  of  Land  Office,  Montgomery,  Alabama 
G.  W.  Buckner  mulatto 

U.  S.  Minister  and  Consul  General  to  Liberia 
John  E.  Bush  mulatto 

Receiver  of  Public  Moneys,  Little  Rock,  Arkansas 
Henry  W.  Furniss  mulatto 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  Port  au 

Prince,  Haiti 
George  H.  Jackson  mulatto 

United  States  Consul  to  Cognac,  France 
James  W.  Johnson  mulatto 

United  States  Consul  at  Corinto,  Nicaragua 
Joseph  Lee  mulatto 

Collector  of  Internal  Revenue  for  Florida 
William  H.  Lewis  mulatto 

Assistant  Attorney  General 
Whitfield  McKinley  mulatto 

Collector  of  Customs,  Port  of  Georgetown,  D.  C. 
Fred  R.  Moore  mulatto 

United   States   Minister  and   Consul  General   to   Liberia 
James  C.   Napier  mulatto 

Register  of  the  Treasury 


Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  37. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          255 

Robert  Smalls  mulatto 

Collector  of  Customs  at  Beaufort,  S.  C. 
R.  H.  Terrell  mulatto 

Municipal  Court  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
Ralph  W.  Tyler  Indian  and  mulatto 

Auditor  of  the  Navy 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  lists,  an  additional  list  of 
men,  not  heretofore  mentioned,  was  compiled  from  all  the 
available  sources  of  information.  It  included,  so  far  as  it 
was  possible  to  obtain  them,  the  names  of  all  men  who  are 
mentioned  in  the  literature  as  having  held  elective  or  ap 
pointive  offices,  or  as  otherwise  having  distinguished  them 
selves  by  political  ability,  or  gained  political  prominence. 
After  eliminating  from  the  list  thus  compiled,  the  names 
of  all  men  who  have  a  better  claim  to  distinction  than  the 
political  one  and  who  were  consequently  placed  in  other  cate 
gories,  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  names  remained.  Of  these, 
one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  were  mulattoes ;  and  fifteen, 
so  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  seem  to  have  been  full-blooded 
Negroes.  In  tabular  form,  the  facts  stand  as  follows: 

Black  Mulatto  Total 

United  States  Senators  022 

United  States  Representatives  3            17          20 

Resident  Minister  to  Haiti  Oil 

Lieutenant   Governors  23  066 

Reconstructionists  4            15          19 

Federal  Officials  044 

In  Diplomatic  Service  1              12 

In  Consular  Service  2              68 

Holders   of  Political  Positions  0            14          14 

Miscellaneous  15          137        152 


Totals  25  203 

Names  repeated  3  48          51 

Corrected  totals  22  155       177 

33  See  note  16,  p.  252  above. 


256  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

It  would  appear  from  these  facts  that  in  the  political  life 
of  the  country — as  measured  by  the  relative  amount  of 
office  holding — that  the  man  of  mixed  blood  is  somewhat 
over  seven  times  as  successful  as  the  full-blooded  Negro. 
This,  too,  is  on  the  principle  of  classifying  as  full-bloods, 
all  Negroes  where  there  seems  to  be  any  reason  to  doubt 
the  fact  of  a  mixed  ancestry. 

The  number  of  inventions  by  members  of  the  Negro  race 
is  very  small.24  Scarcely  half  a  dozen  names  are  required 
to  enumerate  the  whole  list  that  the  most  liberal-minded 
would  class  as  important.25  The  patent  office  makes  no  rec 
ord  of  the  race  of  the  patentees,  so  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
know  the  Negro  inventors  with  any  certainty  or  complete 
ness.  A  list  of  alleged  Negro  inventors  was  furnished  to 
the  Paris  Exposition  in  1900. 26  The  list  contains  two  hun 
dred  and  one  separate  names  but  in  almost  every  case  there 
is  absolutely  no  information  available  concerning  the  men 
themselves.  In  all,  information  was  obtained  in  regard  to 
twenty-seven  of  the  inventors  listed.  Of  these  four  are  said 
to  be  black  and  twenty-three  are  admittedly  mulatto.  The 
men  whose  ancestry  it  was  possible  to  trace,  with  the  inven 
tion  on  which  they  received  a  patent,  follows : 

*  Harry  E.  Baker,  a  mulatto  clerk  in  the  United  States  Patent  Office, 
claims  to  have  verified  800  patents  granted  to  Negroes.  He  estimates 
that  400  others,  unverified,  have  been  granted.  His  plan  of  discovery 
and  verification  has  been  to  circularize  the  patent  attorneys,  newspapers, 
"conspicuous  citizens  of  both  races,"  etc.,  on  the  subject.  "The  answers 
to  this  inquiry  cover  a  wide  range  of  guess  work,  many  mere  rumors 
and  a  large  number  of  definite  facts.  These  are  all  put  through  the 
test  of  comparison  with  the  official  record  of  the  patent  office.  .  .*." 
But  even  at  the  highest  estimate  that  Mr.  Baker  claims  for  his  race  the 
number  of  inventors  is  pitifully  small.  H.  E.  Baker,  The  Colored 
Inventor. 

"Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  names  sixteen,  pp.  284  if. 

28  Reprinted  in  D.  W.  Gulp's  Twentieth  Century  Negro  Literature. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          257 


L.  C.  Bailey 
L.  W.  Benjamin 
Miss  M.  E.  Benjamin 
L.  Blue 
Henry  Brown 
Eugene   Burkins 
M.  A.  Cherry 
J.  S.  Coolidge 
W.  R.  Davis 
J.  H.  Dickinson 
T.  H.  Edmonds 

D.  A.  Fisher 
A.  F.  Hilyer 
W.  A.  Lavalette 

F.  J.  Loudin 

J.  E.  Matzeliger 

E.  McCoy 

G.  W.  Murray 

L.   Nance 
O'Connor 
W.  B.  Purvis 
E.  P.  Ray 
H.  H.  Reynolds 
E.  H  Sutton 
G.  T.  Woods 
James  Wormley 
P.  B.  Williams 


Folding  bed  mulatto 

Broom    moistener  mulatto 

Gong  and  Signal  chairs  mulatto 

Hand  corn  shelling  device  mulatto 

Receptacle  for  storing  papers  mulatto 

Rapid-fire   gun  mulatto 

Velocipede  mulatto 

Harness  attachment  mulatto 

Library  table  black 

Piano  player  devices  mulatto 

Separating  screens  mulatto 

Joiner's  clamp  mulatto 

Registers  mulatto 
Early   printing   device,    about 

1879  mulatto 

Sash  fastener  mulatto 
Machine    for    attaching    soles 

to  shoes  mulatto 

Lubricators  mulatto 
Attachments   for  agricultural 

implements  mulatto 

Game  apparatus  black 

Alarm  for  boilers  black 

Paper  bag  machines  mulatto 

Dentist's  Chair  device  mulatto 

Safety  gate  for  bridges  mulatto 

Cotton  Cultivator  black 

Electrical   appliances  Australian" 

Life  saving  apparatus  mulatto 

Electrical  railway  track  switch  mulatto 


In  his  pamphlet,28  Mr.  Baker  names  twelve  additional 
Negro  inventors.  Concerning  four  of  these,  no  informa 
tion  was  obtained.  The  eight  remaining,  all  of  whom  are 
mulattoes,  are  as  follows: 

Benjamin   Banneker 
W.   Douglass 


Shelby  Davidson 

*  See  note  49,  p.  195. 

*  The  Colored  Inventor. 


Clock.    Published  almanac  mulatto 
Harvesting    machine    attach 
ments  mulatto 
Tabulating  device  mulatto 


258  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

James  Doyle  A   mechanical   server  mulatto 

James  Forton  Device   for  managing  sails  mulatto 

R.  Pelham  Tabulating   device  mulatto 

C.  V.  Richey  Register    for   telephone   calls  mulatto 

Lyates  Woods  Electrical   appliances  Australian 

The  Negro  Year  Book  29  gives  practically  the  same  list. 
The  only  additional  name  is  that  of  a  free  Negro  of  Mary 
land,  Henry  Blair,  who  secured  patents  for  a  corn  har 
vester  in  1834  and  again  in  1836.  There  is  nothing  stated 
and  presumably  nothing  known  concerning  his  color.  The 
fact,  however,  that  he  was  free  at  least  gives  the  presump 
tion  that  he  was  a  man  of  mixed  blood. 

During  the  past  eighteen  months,  the  Negro  journals  and 
papers  have  mentioned  thirteen  additional  patents  granted 
to  Negroes.30  Ten  of  these  men  are  mulattoes,  one  a  man 
of  unmixed  blood  and  two,  while  probably  not  full-blood, 
are  very  nearly  so. 

Of  the  forty-eight  inventors,  then,  of  whom  it  was  pos 
sible  to  secure  information — and  the  number  seems  to  in 
clude  most  of  the  important  as  well  as  most  of  the  recent 
ones — forty-one  are  men  of  mixed  blood  and  seven  are  either 
full  black  or  nearly  so.  Nine  of  these  men,  however,  have 
been  mentioned  in  other  connections.  Of  the  thirty-nine 
new  names,  seven  are  of  black  Negroes  and  thirty-two  of 
mulattoes — a  ratio  of  nearly  five  to  one.31  The  collected 
information  falls  into  the  following  tabulation: 

29 1914-1915.     See  pp.  282  if. 

so  For  the  eighteen  months  ending  June,  1916.  There  may  of  course 
have  been  others  that  escaped  notice. 

81  It  is  quite  probable  that  if  data  were  available  concerning  any  large 
number  of  the  Negro  inventors  of  lesser  note  that  this  ratio  of  about 
one  black  man  to  five  mulattoes  would  be  maintained  or  the  proportion 
of  black  men  might  even  be  increased.  Minor  inventions  are  very  fre 
quently  if  not  generally  the  work  of  men  in  daily  contact  with  the  ma 
chines  they  use  and  for  which  they  invent  improvements, 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          259 

Black  Mulatto  Total 

Twentieth  Century  Negro  Literature         4          23          27 
The  Colored  Inventor  088 

Miscellaneous  3          10          13 

Totals  7         41         48 

Names  repeated  099 

Corrected  totals  7         32         39 

The  medical  profession,  more  perhaps  than  any  other 
in  which  Negroes  are  found,  is  made  up  of  trained  men. 
At  least  a  certain  minimum  of  training  is  required  that  a 
man  be  licensed  to  practice.  The  medical  degree,  even  from 
the  least  reputable  institutions,  stands  for  something  in  the 
way  of  training.  It  is  not  an  honorary  degree,  and  legal 
provisions  prevent  the  practice  of  medicine  by  men  wholly 
untrained. 

The  census  of  1910  gave  3,777  as  the  number  of  Negro 
physicians  in  the  United  States.  Of  these  a  few  have  at 
tained  something  more  than  local  reputation.  The  Negro 
Year  Book  32  mentions  three  of  those  who  have  "achieved 
national  reputation":  Daniel  H.  Williams  of  Chicago, 
George  C.  Hall  of  Chicago,  and  A.  M.  Curtis  of  Washing 
ton,  D.  C.  All  of  these  men  are  light-colored  mulattoes. 

Dr.  Kenney  gives  brief  sketches  of  some  sixty-eight  Negro 
physicians.33  While  he  distinctly  states  that  there  are  hun 
dreds  of  others  "just  as  worthy  and  whose  accomplishments 
are  as  brilliant  as  those  selected,"  the  list  nevertheless  con 
tains  most,  at  least,  of  the  better-known  Negro  physicians. 
The  list  is  as  follows: 

A.  W.  Abbott  Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

W.  G.  Alexander  Orange,  N.  J.  mulatto 

32 1914-1915,  p.  334. 

88  John  A.  Kenney,  The  Negro  in  Medicine. 


260 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


A.  T.  Augusta 

B.  R  Bluitt 
Robert  F.  Boyd 
Roscoe  C.  Brown 
L.  L.  Burwell 
H.  R.  Butler 
George  E.  Cannon 
Simeon  L.  Carson 
Rebecca  J.  Cole 

S.  E.  Courtney 
A.  M.  Curtis 
U.  G.  Dailey 
John  W.  Darden 
John  DeGrasse 

C.  N.  Dorsett 
A.  W.  Dumas 
Chas.   B.   Dunbar 
James  Durham 
John  C.  Ferguson 
Joseph   Ferguson 
Joseph  J.  France 
S.  C.  Fuller 

H.  F.  Gamble 
C.  N.  Garland 

E.  E.  Green 
George  C.  Hall 
John  B.  Hall 
R.  T.  Hamilton 

F.  S.  Hargrave 
W.  H.  Higgins 
J.  Seth  Hills 
E.  C.  Howard 
John  E.  Hunter 
A.  B.  Jackson 
Peter  A.  Johnson 
A.  D.  Jones 
Miles  B.  Jones 


Virginia 
Dallas,  Texas 
Nashville,   Tenn. 
Richmond,  Va. 
Selma,   Ala. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. 
Washington,  D.   C. 
Washington,  D.   C. 
Boston,   Mass. 
Washington,  D.   C. 
Chicago,  111. 
Opelika,  Ala. 
New  York  City 
Montgomery,  Ala. 
Natchez,  Miss. 
New  York  and  Liberia 
New  Orleans,  La. 
Virginia 
Richmond,  Va. 
Portsmouth,  Va. 
WTestborough,  Mass. 
Charleston,  W.  Va. 
Boston,    Mass. 
Macon,  Ga. 
Chicago,    111. 
Boston,   Mass. 
Dallas,  Texas 
Wilson,  N.  C. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Jacksonville,  P"la. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lexington,  Ky. 
Philadelphia,   Pa. 
New    York   City 
Atlanta,  Ga. 


mulatto 

mulatto 34 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto  35 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 3fl 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

black 


Richmond,  Va. 

34  Called  black  by  one  authority. 

85  Darden  is  a  dark  brown  man.  One  authority  considers  him  a  full- 
blood  Negro. 

88  One  authority  writes  that  France  is  a  "dark  man  but  probably 
not  pure  Negro." 


The  Negro  arid  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          261 


John  W.  Jones 

John  A.  Kenney 

J.  R.  Levy 

A.  C.  McClennon 

David  K.  McDonough 

A.  M.  Moore 

N.  F.  Mossell 

John  S.  Outlaw 

Loring  B.  Palmer 

W.  F.  Penn 

C.  B.  Purvis 

Rapier 

Peter  Williams  Ray 

E.  P.  Roberts 
C.  V.  Roman 
David  Resell 
Chas.  H.  Shepard 
T.  H.  Slater 
James  McCune  Smith 
Willis  E.  Sterrs 

F.  A.  Stewart 
Tucker. 

A.  M.  Townsend 
John  W.  Walker 
L.  P.  Walton 
W.  A.  Warfield 
Daniel  H.  Williams 
James  H.  Wilson 
A.  A.  Wych 


Winston  Salem,  N.  C.  mulatto" 

Tuskegee,  Ala.  mulatto 

Florence,  S.  C.  mulatto S8 

Charleston,  S.  C.  mulatto 

New  York  City  mulatto 

Durham,  N.  C.  mulatto 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

Los   Angeles,   Calif.  mulatto 

Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

New  York   City  mulatto 

New  York   City  mulatto 

Nashville,   Tenn.  mulatto 

New  York  City  mulatto 

Durham,  N.  C.  mulatto 

Atlanta,    Ga.  black 

New  York  City  mulatto 

Montgomery,  Ala.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Washington,   D.   C.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Asheville,    N.   C.  mulatto 

Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Chicago,  111.  mulatto 

Philadelphia,   Pa.  black 

Charlotte,  N.  C.  mulatto 


Of  the  sixty-eight  names  here  presented,  four  are  of  full- 
blooded  Negroes.  The  remaining  sixty-four  seem  in  all 
cases  to  be  men  of  mixed  blood.  In  five  of  these  cases,  the 
men  are  dark  in  color  and  one  correspondent  called  each  of 
them  a  full-blooded  Negro.  This,  however,  was  not  con 
curred  in,  in  any  case,  by  the  other  authorities  consulted. 
Consequently,  they  have  been  classed  as  men  of  mixed  blood 
and  attention  called  to  the  dissenting  opinion.  The  list 


Called  full-blood  by  one  authority. 
1 A  dark  mulatto,  sometimes  called   full-blood. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

contains  twenty-two  names  which  have  been  mentioned  ir 
other  connections.  Omitting  these,  the  list  then  stands :  four 
Negroes  of  full-blood  and  forty-two  mulattoes.  Five  of  the 
latter  number  are  brown  or  dark  mulattoes. 

Dr.  Kenny's  list  seems  to  be  the  most  elaborate  and  ac 
curate  of  any  single  discussion  of  the  Negro  physicians. 
From  various  other  sources,  however,  a  considerably  more 
extensive  list  was  compiled.  While  it  does  not,  perhaps 
contain  the  names  of  so  many  men  of  first-rate  ability  and 
perhaps  contains  more  names  of  men  of  second-rate  ability, 
it  is  nevertheless  made  up  of  physicians  of  sufficient  note 
or  promise  to  gain  mention  in  the  literature  dealing  with  the 
Negro,  or  in  the  publications  of  the  race.  The  men  included 
seem  in  all  cases  to  be  of  some  prominence  within  the  pro 
fession  and,  consequently,  leaders  of  some  importance  among 
the  people. 

This  compilation  from  miscellaneous  sources  includes  the 
names  of  two  hundred  eight  physicians  not  previously  men 
tioned.  Two  hundred  of  these  are  men  and  eight  are  women. 
Of  the  men  eleven  are  black  or  nearly  so,  while  one  hundred 
and  eighty-nine  are  undoubtedly  of  mixed  blood.  Of  the 
women,  one  is  classed  as  black  and  seven  are  classed  as  mu 
lattoes.  Of  the  eleven  men  recorded  as  black  it  would  not 
be  safe  to  assert  that  more  than  one-half  are  men  of  un 
mixed  Negro  blood ;  but  to  all  intent  and  purpose,  twelve  of 
the  entire  list  are  Negroes  of  full  blood. 

There  seems  to  have  been  made  no  special  study  which 
brings  together  a  representative  list  of  successful  Negro  den 
tists,  and  no  separate  list  is  here  presented.  Several  of  the 
men  discussed  in  the  volume  by  Dr.  Kenncy  are  dentists,  or 
practice  dentistry  in  connection  with  their  medical  prac 
tice.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  many  of  the  men  in  the  list 
compiled  from  miscellaneous  sources. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          263 

Omitting  names  of  men  which  have  been  previously  men 
tioned  in  other  connections,  there  remains  a  total  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  physicians  and  dentists  who,  if  not 
in  all  cases  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  professions,  are 
at  least  representative  men  and,  in  all  cases,  men  of  some 
note  in  the  professional  circles  of  the  Negro  group.  Of 
these  men  sixteen  are  either  very  dark  mulattoes  or  full- 
blood  Negroes,  while  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  are  per 
sons  of  mixed  blood.  Among  the  leaders  of  these  profes 
sions,  then,  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  full  blood 
appears  to  be  approximately  fifteen  to  one.  The  lists  sum 
marize  as  follows: 

MEN  WOMEN 

Black        Mul.       Total.     Black    Mul.  Total  Totals 

Kenney:N.  in  Medicine       4  64  68          0          0          0  68 

Miscellaneous  11  189          200          1  7          8          208 

Totals  15          253          268  1  7          8          276 

Names  repeated  0  22  22          0          0          0  22 


Corrected   totals  15          231  246          1          7          8          254 

There  seems  to  have  been  published  no  list  of  the  promi 
nent  Negro  lawyers.  As  a  practitioner  no  Negro  lawyer 
has  made  anything  more  than  a  minor  and  local  reputa 
tion.  The  exceptions  that  might  be  made  to  this  statement 
would  be  in  the  case  of  men  previously  listed  among  the  poli 
ticians.  Many  of  these  men  are  lawyers  by  profession,  in 
some  cases  by  training,  but  their  reputation  in  few,  if  any, 
cases  rests  upon  their  legal  learning  or  successful  practice. 
Their  prominence  is  rather  due  to  the  conspicuous  political 
offices  they  have  held. 

Reference  to  the  book  and  magazine  literature  and  an 
examination  of  some  thousand  of  Negro  newspapers  and 
magazines  extending  over  a  period  of  eighteen  months,  re- 


264  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

suited  in  a  compilation  of  names  of  Negro  lawyers  of  some 
note  who  have  not  been  mentioned  previously.  Classing  as 
mulattoes  only  those  who  are  conspicuously  and  unmistak 
ably  so,  and  as  full-bloods,  all  black  men  as  well  as  those 
where  there  could  exist  any  reasonable  doubt  concerning 
the  mixture  of  blood,  it  was  found  that  the  ratio  of  mu 
lattoes  to  Negroes  of  pure  blood  was  nine  to  one.  Of  the 
ninety-nine  men  in  the  list,  ten  were  classed  as  black  and 
eighty-nine  as  mulattoes.  Of  the  latter  group,  four  at 
least  have  some  Indian  as  well  as  white  blood  in  their  ethnic 
composition. 

The  teachers,  more  than  any  other  professional  group 
among  the  American  Negroes,  are  representative  of  all  that 
is  best  and  most  promising  in  the  race.  They  are  the  men, 
somewhat  superior  in  training  and  education,  who  are  in  inti 
mate  daily  contact  with  the  best  minds  among  the  youth  of 
the  race  and  by  precept  and  example,  endeavor  to  improve 
the  intellectual  and  moral  status  of  the  race.  The  Negro 
teachers  are,  in  general,  persons  of  importance  in  the  Negro 
group  and  enjoy  a  prestige  which,  aside  from  their  profes 
sional  influence,  makes  them  leaders  among  the  people.  It 
is,  moreover,  comparatively  easy  to  select  from  the  great 
number  of  teachers  the  men  and  women  who  are  most  prom 
inent  and  presumably  most  influential  in  matters  concerning 
the  welfare  of  the  race. 

Of  the  fifty-seven  educational  institutions  listed  in  The 
Negro  Year  Book  39  under  the  head  of  Universities  and  Col 
leges^  twenty-six  at  least  have  white  men  as  presidents.  Of 
the  remaining  thirty-one,  the  presidents  of  twenty-six  are 
mulattoes ;  the  presidents  of  three  are  black  men.  Whether 
the  remaining  two  have  white  men,  mulattoes,  or  black  men 
as  presidents  was  not  determined.  This  list  of  Universi- 
89 1914-1915,  pp.  246-47. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          265 

ties  and  Colleges  excluding  the  institutions  with  white  men 
at  their  heads  is  as  follows : 


Allen  University 

Columbia,  S.  C. 
Arkansas   Baptist  College 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Bennett  College 

Greensboro,  N.  C. 
Biddle   University 

Charlotte,  N.  C. 
Campbell   College 

Jackson,  Miss. 
Central  City  College 

Macon,  Ga. 
Central  Texas  College 

Waco,  Texas 
Conroe    College 

Conroe,  Texas 
Edward  Waters  College 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Guadaloupe   College 

Seguin,  Texas 
Houston  College 

Houston,  Texas 
Jackson  College 

Jackson,  Miss. 
Kittrell   College 

Kittrell,  N.  C. 
Lampton  College 

Alexandria,   La. 
Lane  College 

Jackson,  Tenn. 
Livingstone  College 

Salisbury,  N.  C. 
Miles   Memorial   College 

Birmingham,   Ala. 
Morehouse  College 

Atlanta,    Ga. 
Morris  Brown  University 

Atlanta,    Ga. 


W.  W.  Beckett 

mulatto 

Joseph  A.  Booker 

black 

J.    E.    Wallace 

mulatto 

H.    L.    McCrorey 

mulatto 

W.  T.  Vernon 

black 

William  E.  Holmes 

mulatto 

J.  W.  Strong 

mulatto 

David  Abner 

mulatto 

John  A.  Grigg 

mulatto 

D.  J.  Hull 

F.  W.  Gross 

black 

Z.  T.  Hubert 

mulatto 

C,  G.  O'Kelley 

mulatto 

M.  M.  Ponton 

mulatto 

J.  F.  Lane 

mulatto 

W.  H.  Goler 

mulatto 

G.  A.  Payne 

mulatto 

John  Hope 

mulatto 

W.  A.  Fountain 

mulatto 

266 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Payne  University 

Selma,  Ala. 
Philander-Smith  College 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Roger   Williams    University 

Nashville,   Tenn. 
Samuel  Huston  College 

Austin,    Texas 
Selma  University 

Selma,  Ala. 
Shorter   College 

Argenta,  Ark. 
State    University 

Louisville,   Ky. 
Va.  Theol.  Sem.  &  College 

Lynchburg,  Va. 
University  of  West  Tenn. 

Memphis,  Tenn. 
Western  University 

Quindaro,   Kansas 
Wilberforce  University 

Wilberforce,    Ohio 
Wiley  University 

Marshall,  Texas 


H.  E.  Archer  mulatto 

J.  M.  Cox  mulatto 

A.  M.  Townsend  mulatto 

R.  S.  Lovingood  mulatto 

M.  W.  Gilbert  mulatto 

O.  L.  Moody  

W.  T.  Amiger  mulatto 

R.   C.   Woods  mulatto 

M.  V.  Lynk  mulatto 

H.  T.  Kealing  mulatto 

W.   S.   Scarborough  mulatto 

M.  W.  Dogan  mulatto 


A  number  of  these  men  have  been  mentioned  in  previous 
lists.  Omitting  these  and  the  two  whose  ethnic  composition 
is  unknown,  the  new  names  are  in  sixteen  cases  of  mulattoes 
and  in  one  case  that  of  a  full-blooded  Negro. 

In  the  sixteen  institutions  for  women,40  the  president  or 
principal  in  all  cases  except  two  seems  to  be  a  white  man 
or  woman.  Miss  M.  M.  Bethune,  a  dark  mulatto,  is  at  the 
head  of  the  Daytona  Training  School  for  Girls  at  Daytona, 
Florida.  Miss  Nannie  H.  Burroughs,  a  mulatto  woman,  is 
at  the  head  of  the  National  Training  School  for  Women  and 
Girls  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  former  institution  enrolls 
about  three  hundred  pupils ;  the  latter,  about  one  hundred.41 

40  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  248. 

41  Ibid.,  p.  248. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          267 

The  various  schools  of  theology  are  for  the  most  part 
conducted  by  white  men.  So  far  as  known,  those  not  con 
ducted  by  white  men  are  under  the  direction  of  mulattoes. 
In  general,  these  schools  of  theology  are  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  universities  or  colleges  just  listed.42 

What  is  true  of  the  theological  schools  and  the  institu 
tions  for  women,  is  equally  true  of  the  professional  schools 
of  law,43  medicine,44  dentistry,45  and  pharmacy.46  They 
are  generally  departments  of  the  universities  or  colleges 
and,  if  not  in  charge  of  white  men,  seem  in  every  case  to  be 
under  the  direction  of  men  of  mixed  blood.  It  would  seem 
that  in  no  case  is  a  black  man  in  administrative  charge  of 
one  of  these  schools. 

The  State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Colleges,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  for  the  most  part  under  the  presidency  of 
men  of  the  Negro  race.  Of  the  seventeen  such  schools  listed 
in  The  Negro  Year  Book,47  one  has  a  white  president,48 
one  a  Negro  president,  and  fourteen  have  mulatto  presi 
dents.  Omitting  the  institution  under  the  presidency  of  a 
white  man,  the  list  is  as  follows : 

Agricultural  and  Industrial  State     W.  J.   Hale  mulatto 

Normal  School 

Nashville,    Tenn. 

Agr.  and  Mechan.  College  for  the     James   B.   Dudley  mulatto 

Colored  Race 

Greensboro,  N.  C. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col-     W.   S.   Buchanan  mulatto 

lege  for  Negroes 
Normal,  Ala. 

"Ibid.,  pp.  248-49. 

43  Ibid.,  p.  250. 

44  Ibid.,  p.  250. 

46  Ibid.,  p.  250. 

48  Ibid.,  pp.  250-51. 

47  Issue  for  1914-1915,  pp.  251-52. 

48  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 


268 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Alcorn  Agr.  and  Mechanical  Col 
lege 

Alcorn,  Miss. 
Branch  Normal  College 

Pine   Bluff,  Ark. 
Colored  Agricultural  and  Normal 
University 

Langston,   Okla. 

Colored    Normal,    Industrial    and 
Mechanical   College 

Orangeburg,  S.   C. 
Fla.    Agr.    and    Median.    College 
for  Negroes 

Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Ga.  St.  Ind.  College 

Savannah,   Ga. 

Ky.  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti 
tute   for  Colored 
Frankfort,  Ky. 

La.    Agr.    and    Mecharticajl    Col 
lege 

Baton  Rouge,  La. 
Lincoln  Institute 

Jefferson  City,  Mo. 
Md.  Normal  and  Agricultural  In 
stitute 

Sandy  Springs,  Md. 
Prairie    View    State    Normal    and 
Industrial   College 

Prairie  View,  Texas 
State    College    for    Colored    Stu 
dents 

Dover,  Del. 

West.  Va.  Colored  Institute 
Institute,  West  Va. 


J.  A.  Martin 

F.  T.   Venegar 
Inman  E.  Page 

R.  S.  Wilkinson 
Nathan  B.  Young 

Richard  R.  Wright 

G.  P.    Russell 

J.   S.   Clark 

B.  F.  Allen 

G.    H.    C.    Williams 

E.  L.  Blackshear 
W.  C.  Jason 
Byrd   Prillerman 


mulatto 

black 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 

Mandingo 
mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


Three  men  in  the  above  list  have  been  previously  men 
tioned  in  other  connections.  Omitting  these,  there  is  men 
tioned  in  this  group  thirteen  new  names,  one  of  which  is  that 
of  a  pure-blooded  Negro  and  twelve  are  names  of  men  of 
mixed  blood. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          269 

It  may  be  objected,  however,  that,  inasmuch  as  an  ad 
ministrative  position  in  a  college  or  a  university  is  a  politi 
cal  position,  the  presidents  and  principals  of  schools  are 
not  fairly  representative  of  the  educational  leadership.  In 
a  sense,  this  is  true.  There  exists  everywhere  among  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  race  and  among  a  large  percentage  of 
the  more  enlightened  classes,  a  prejudice  against  admitting 
mulatto  superiority  and  a  conscious  policy  of  advancing 
black  men  to  conspicuous  figure-head  positions  simply  be 
cause  of  their  color.  Consequently,  it  may  be  well  to  look 
at  the  intellectual  part  of  tfie  teaching  force  as  represented 
by  the  faculty  membership. 

Tuskegee  Institute,  as  the  largest  and  best  known  of  the 
Negro  schools,  may  be  taken  as  an  example.  The  present 
principal  is  a  black  man.49  The  school  has  a  teaching  force 
of  approximately  two  hundred.  Of  this  number,  nine,  none 
of  whom  are  in  high  positions,50  are  Negroes  who  generally 
pass  as  full-bloods.51  One  hundred  and  eighty-four  are  per 
sons  of  mixed  blood.52  Of  the  nine  full-blooded  Negroes, 
one  is  a  woman  and  eight  are  men.  Of  the  one  hundred  and 

48  R.  R.  Moton. 

80 ".  .  .  Indeed,  I  saw  no  one  in  high  position  at  Tuskegee  who  would 
not,  with  a  very  small  lightening  of  hue,  have  been  taken  without  ques 
tion  for  a  white  man.  .  .  ."  William  Archer,  Thro  Afro-America, 
p.  108. 

61 G.  W.  Carver,  Agriculture 
John  H.  Palmer,  Registrar 
J.  L.  Whiting,  Teacher  of  Mathematics 
F.  L.  West,  Shoemaking 

R.  S.  Pompey,  Assistant  in  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  A.  Tate,  Swine  Raising 
John  W.  Goiens,  Clerk 
Willie  M.  Hendley,  Matron 
W.  M.  Rakestraw,  Negro  Conference  Agent 

68  This  analysis  is  on  the  basis  of  the  faculty  listed  in  the  Annual 
Catalogue  for  1909-1910. 


270  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

eighty-four  mulattoes,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  are  men  and 
sixty-eight  are  women. 

From  various  miscellaneous  sources,  there  was  made  a 
compilation  of  Negro  teachers  in  various  schools  and  col 
leges  who  are  mentioned  in  the  race  literature  as  men  of 
prominence  and  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  race.  After 
removing  from  this  compilation  the  names  of  individuals 
included  in  other  lists,  there  remained  two  hundred  and 
sixty-three  names.  Again  calling  all  black  who  are  not  ob 
viously  and  noticeably  of  mixed  blood  and  classifying  the 
remainder  as  mulattoes  there  were  found  to  be  twenty-two 
black  and  two  hundred  and  forty-one  persons  of  mixed 
blood.  Of  those  classified  as  black,  six  are  men  and  six 
teen  are  women.  Of  those  classified  as  mulattoes  one  hun 
dred  and  eighty-four  are  men  and  fifty-seven  are  women. 

The  thing  that  is  true  in  respect  to  the  teachers  in  the 
schools  and  colleges,  is  true  also  of  the  student  body.  Ac 
cording  to  The  Negro  Year  Book,63  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy  has  been  conferred  upon  eleven  Negroes  by  repu 
table  Universities.54  In  all  cases,  with  possibly  one  excep 
tion,  the  recipients  were  men  of  mixed  blood.  The  list  is 
as  follows : 

T.  Nelson  Baker  Yale  1903  black 

Edward  A.  Bonchet  Yale  1876  mulatto 

William  L.  Bulkley  Syracuse  1893  mulatto 

J.  R.  L;  Diggs  111.  Wesleyan  1906  mulatto 

W.  E.  B.  DuBois  Harvard  1895  mulatto 

George    E.    Haynes  Columbia  1912  mulatto 

Lewis  B.  Moore  Pennsylvania  1896  mulatto 

Pezavia    O'Connell  Pennsylvania  1898  mulatto 

C.  H.  Turner  Chicago  1907  mulatto 

C.    G.    Woodson  Harvard   1912  mulatto 

R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.  Pennsylvania  1911  mulatto 

53 1914-1915,  p.  231. 

64  E.  V.  Just,  a  light  mulatto,  received  the  Ph.D.  degree  from  the 
University  of  Chicago  in  1916. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          271 

It  has  been  pointed  out  already  that  the  college  grad 
uates  are  for  the  most  part  individuals  of  mixed  blood.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  pictured  in  certain  copies  of 
The  Crisis  examined,  not  above  one-seventh  can  be  classed 
as  black  even  when  all  who  are  not  conspicuously  of  mixed 
blood  are  placed  in  that  category. 

In  Chicago,  the  Negroes  for  the  most  part  are  segregated 
within  the  boundaries  of  one  high  school  district.55  Conse 
quently,  most  of  the  Negro  high  school  students  in  the  city 
attend  the  one  school  and  constitute  about  twenty  per  cent 
of  its  total  enrollment.  Enquiry  concerning  the  relative 
number  of  mulattoes  and  pure-blooded  Negroes  enrolled, 
disclosed  the  startling  fact  that  every  Negro  student  in 
attendance  was  of  the  mixed-blood  class.56 

To  obtain  further  information  along  this  line,  letters  were 
addressed  to  administrative  officers  or  teachers  in  the  prin 
cipal  Negro  schools  bearing  the  name  of  college  or  univer 
sity.  Information  was  received  in  regard  to  twenty-five  of 
the  leading  schools.  Generally  the  information  was  accom 
panied  by  the  request  that  the  name  of  the  individual  fur 
nishing  the  information  be  not  divulged.  In  most  cases,  the 
figures  are  based  on  estimation  rather  than  on  actual  count. 
A  tabulation  of  the  data  received  gives  the  following: 

BLACK  AND  MULATTO  STUDENTS  IN  LEADING  NEGRO  SCHOOLS 

Enrolled  Mulatto  Black 
Arkansas  Baptist  College  350          315  35 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Atlanta  University  430          409  21 

Atlanta,  Ga. 
Benedict  College  700          694  6 

Columbia,  S.  C. 

"Wendell   Phillips. 

66  The  date  of  this  inquiry  was  10-3-1916. 


272  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

BLACK  AND  MULATTO  STUDENTS  IN  LEADING  NEGRO  SCHOOLS 

(Continued) 

Enrolled  Mulatto  Black 
Chaflin  University  413          241          172 

Orangeburg,  S.  C. 
Ingleside  Seminary  126  93  33 

Burkeville,  Va. 
Knoxville  College  400          300          100 

Knoxville,  Tenn. 
Lane  College  300         260  40 

Jackson,  Tenn. 
Lincoln  University  216         156  60 

Lincoln  Univ.,  Pa. 
Livingstone  College  289         231  58 

Salisbury,  N.  C. 
Montgomery  Industrial  School  340         300  40 

Montgomery,  Ala. 
Morgan  College  312         312  0 

Baltimore,  Md. 
National     Training     School      for 

Women  and  Girls  100  67  33 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Paine  University  219          182  37 

Augusta,  Ga. 
Rust  University  260         234  26 

Holly  Springs,  Miss. 
Scotia  Seminary  287          275  12 

Concord,  N.  C. 
Selma  University  483          323          160 

Selma,  Ala. 
Shaw  University  485          395  90 

Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Spelman  Seminary  703          503         200 

Atlanta,  Ga. 
Straight  University  555          421          134 

New  Orleans,  La. 
Swift  Memorial  College  205          137  68 

Rogersville,  Tenn, 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          273 

BLACK  AND  MULATTO  STUDENTS  IN  LEADING  NEGRO  SCHOOLS 

(Continued) 

Enrolled  Mulatto  Black 
Talladega  College  71  67  4 

Talladega,  Ala. 
Tillosten  College  250          190  60 

Austin,  Texas 
Walden  University  765         695  70 

Nashville,  Tenn. 
Wilberforce  University  450         394  56 

Wilberforce,  Ohio 
Wiley  University  463         373  90 

Marshall,  Texas 

9,172      7,567      1,605 

The  number  of  mulattoes  to  black  Negroes  in  the  student 
body  of  these  schools  stands  thus,  according  to  the  informa 
tion  submitted,  in  the  approximate  ratio  of  five  to  one.  This 
tabulation,  however,  can  be  taken  as  giving  only  an  indica 
tion  of  the  facts.  In  only  two  cases  are  the  figures  based 
on  an  actual  inquiry.  One  of  these  investigations  showed 
the  entire  student  body  to  be  mulatto ;  the  other  showed  only 
six  students  out  of  a  total  of  seven  hundred  who  did  not 
know  of  any  mixture  of  blood.  An  accurate  statement  in 
the  case  of  many  of  the  other  schools  would  reduce  the  num 
ber  reported  as  full-blooded  almost,  if  not  quite,  to  the  van 
ishing  point  and  probably  would  reduce  materially  the  pro 
portion  in  the  case  of  all.  But  the  ratios  as  given  may 
perhaps  be  taken  as  indicating  the  approximate  numbers 
who  are  dark  in  color — say  three-fourths  or  more  Negro 
blood — and  those  who  are  so  obviously  of  mixed  blood  as 
to  permit  of  no  question. 

Throwing  the  data  in  regard  to  the  teachers  and  school 
officials  who  are  not  elsewhere  mentioned  into  tabular  form 
we  have  the  following : 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

MEN  WOMEN 

Black  Mul.  Total  Black  Mul.  Total  Totals 

College    Presidents                  3  26  29         0  0  0          29 
Women  Principals                   0000222 

Pres.  Agr.  &  Ind.  Col.           1  15  16         0  0  0          16 

Tuskegee    Institute                  8  116  124         1  68  69         193 

Doctors  of  Philosophy           1  11  12        0  0  0          12 

Miscellaneous  16  184  200        6  57  63        263 


Totals  29        352        381         7        127        134        515 

Names  repeated  2  13  15         0  0  0          15 

Corrected  totals  27        339         366         7         127        134        500 

The  Negro  preachers  on  the  average  are  not  a  particu 
larly  superior  class  of  men.  As  a  rule,  they  are  uneducated 
and  frequently  are  profoundly  ignorant.57  Morally  they 
are  perhaps  inferior  to  any  other  group  of  professional  men 
among  the  Negroes.58  But  aside  from  training,  or  native 
ability,  or  character,  they  are  a  conspicuous  and  influential 
group.  The  ignorant  and  immoral  preacher,  just  as  the  one 
of  character  and  training,  is  a  leader  among  his  people. 
The  church,  through  its  preachers,  does  more  perhaps  than 
any  other  institution  except  the  lodge,  to  modify  and  di 
rect  the  thinking  and  the  acting  of  the  race.  The  preacher, 
then,  regardless  of  his  training  or  character,  must  be  taken 
as  representing  leadership  among  the  Negroes. 

87  Not  one  in  ten  has  so  much  as  a  high-school  education  according 
to  a  writer  in  the  New  York  Aye.  See  issue  of  10-7-1915.  Daniels, 
speaking  of  the  Boston  Negro  preachers,  says  that  "most  of  them  are 
ignorant  and  incompetent  floaters  and  hangers-on  .  .  ."  John  Dan 
iels,  In  Freedom's  Birthplace,  p.  248. 

58  Daniels  considers  that  over  25  per  cent  of  the  Boston  preachers 
"are  patently  lax  in  their  morals,  and  the  majority  is  not  free  from 
more  or  less  suspicion."  Ibid.,  p.  248.  See,  also,  Archer,  Thro 
Afro-America,  p.  139,  and  C.  H.  Brough,  "Work  of  the  Commission 
of  Southern  Universities  on  the  Race  Question,"  Atlantic  Congress, 
1913,  p.  362. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          275 

Many  of  the  Negroes  who  gained  prominence  prior  to 
the  emancipation  did  so  through  their  preaching.  The  Ne 
gro  Year  Book  59  gives  a  list  with  brief  biographical  sketches 
of  these  "noted  Negro  preachers"  prior  to  the  Civil  War. 
The  list  contains  the  names  of  sixteen  men  and  one  woman. 
Tradition  has  it  that  five  of  these  men  were  full-blooded 
Negroes ;  the  evidence  seems  fairly  conclusive  that  twelve 
of  the  number  were  men  of  mixed  blood.  Fifteen  of  the 
seventeen  have  been  previously  mentioned  in  other  connec 
tions.  The  two  additional  men  are  Jack,  or  Uncle  Jack, 
and  Joseph  Willis.  Jack  was  an  itinerant  preacher  in  Vir 
ginia.  "He  was  a  full-blooded  African  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  the  Baptist  Church."  60  Willis  was  a  free  Ne 
gro  in  South  Carolina.  He  "organized  the  first  Baptist 
Church  west  of  the  Mississippi."  61  He  was,  probably,  a 
mulatto. 

Among  the  present-day  Negro  clergy,  the  Bishops  and 
the  general  officers  of  the  principal  religious  denominations 
may  perhaps  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  Negro  preacher  at 
his  best. 

The  Negro  Year  Book62  gives  the  Bishops  of  the  Col 
ored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  as  follows : 

R.  A.  Carter  Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

N.  C.  Cleaves  Jackson,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Elias   Cottrell  Holly  Springs,  Miss.  mulatto 

L.  H.  Holsey  Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

M.  F.  Jamison  Leigh,  Tex.  mulatto 

Isaac  Lane  Jackson,  Tenn.  mulatto 

C.  H.  Phillips  Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

G.  W.  Stewart  Birmingham,  Ala.  mulatto 

R.  S.  Williams  Augusta,  Ga.  mulatto 

w  Issue  for  1914-1915,  pp.  170-76. 
"Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  174. 
"Ibid.,  p.  174. 
63  Ibid.,  p.  179. 


276                The  Mulatto  in  tlie  United  States 

The  General  Officers  of  the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  are  given  as  follows : 63 

J.  A.  Bray                                  Birmingham,  Ala.  mulatto 

William    Burrows                      Memphis,   Term.  

A.  R.  Calhoun                           Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  mulatto64 
John  W.  Gilbert                          Birmingham,  Ala.  mulatto 
J.  A.  Hamlett                            Jackson,  Tenn.  mulatto 
J.  C.  Martin                               Jackson,  Tenn.  mulatto 
J.  H.  Moore                              Pine  Bluff,  Tenn.  mulatto 

L.  E.  Rosser                               Jackson,  Tenn.  

J.  C.  Stanton                             Pittsobo,  N.  Car.  mulatto 

J.  R.  Starks                               Sedalia,  Mo.  mulatto 

R.  S.  Stout                                Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  mulatto 

The  Bishops  of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
are  as  follows :  65 

W.  D.   Chappelle                      Columbia,  S.  C.  mulatto 

James  M.   Conner                     Little   Rock,   Ark.  black" 

L.  J.  Coppin                               Philadelphia,   Pa.  mulatto 

J.  S.  Flipper                              Atlanta,    Ga.  mulatto 

W.  H.  Heard                              Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

John  Hurst                                  Baltimore,  Md.  mulatto 

J.  Albert  Johnson                       Philadelphia,    Pa.  mulatto 

Joshua  M.  Jones                       Wilber force,  Ohio  mulatto 

B.  F.  Lee                                    Wilberforce,  Ohio  mulatto 
H.  B.  Parks                                Chicago,  111.  mulatto 

and  Indian 

C.  T.   Shaffer                            Chicago,   111.  mulatto 
C.   S.  Smith                                 Detroit,  Mich.  mulatto 
B.  T.  Tanner                              Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 
H.  M.  Turner                              Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 
Evans  Tyree                                Nashville,    Tenn.  black67 

The  list  of  general  officers  of  the  African  Methodist  Epis 
copal  Church  is  as  follows :  68 
63  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  179. 
MOne  correspondent  called  Calhoun  a  full-blood  Negro. 
"Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  180. 
M  Conner  is  himself  authority  for  this  classification. 
"Generally  so  considered. 
68  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  180, 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits  277 

G.  W.  Allen                               Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Ira  T.  Bryant                              Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

J.  C.  Caldwell                             Nashville,  Tenn.  black  w 

J.  R.  Hawkins                             Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

A.  S.  Jackson                              Waco,  Texas  mulatto 
J.  T.  Janifer                                Chicago,  111.  mulatto 
J.  I.  Lowe                                     Philadelphia,   Pa.  black 
J.   Frank  McDonald                  Kansas  City,  Mo.  mulatto 
J.  W.  Rankin                              New  York  City  mulatto70 
R.    C.    Ransom                             Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

B.  F.  Watson                              Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 
R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.                     Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

The  Bishops   of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
Church  are  as  follows : 71 

J.  W.  ALstor                                Montgomery,  Ala.  mulatto 

G.  L.  Blackwell                        Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto" 

J.  S.  Caldwell                              Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

G.  W.  Clinton                             Charlotte,  N.  C.  black 

C.  R.  Harris                               Salisbury,  N.  C.  mulatto 
J.  W.  Hood                                  Fayetteville,  N.  C.  mulatto 
Alexander  Walters                     New  York  City  mulatto 
A.  J.   Warner                             Charlotte,    N.    C.  black 

Below  are  listed  the  general  officers  of  the  African  Meth 
odist  Episcopal  Zion  Church:73 

S.  G.  Atkins                               Winston-Salem,  N.  C.  mulatto 

Frank  K.  Bird74                        Charlotte,  N.  C.  mulatto 

Aaron  Brown                              Pensacola,'  Fla.  mulatto75 

G.  C.  Clement                            Charlotte,  N.   C.  mulatto 

"This  may  be  open  to  question.    See  photograph  in  A.  M.  E.  Church 
Review,  Jan.  1916,  p.  182. 

70  All    authorities    agree    in    calling    Rankin    a    mulatto.      His    photo 
graphs  show  a  man  of  rather  typical  Negro  features.     See,  for  exam 
ple,  the  A.  M.  E.  Church  Review,  Jan.  1916,  p.  177. 

71  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  181. 

"One  authority  called  Blackwell  a   full-blooded   Negro. 
78  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  181. 
f*  Deceased. 
Ti  A  dark  man. 


278  The  Mulatto  in   the  United  States 

J.  C.  Dancy  Philadelphia,   Pa.  mulatto 

W.  H.  Goler  Salisbury,  N.  C.  mulatto 

J.  S.  Jackson  Birmingham,   Ala.  mulatto 

L.  W.  Kyles  Mobile,  Ala.  mulatto 

M.  D.  Lee  Rock  Hill,  S.  C.  mulatto79 

John   F.  Moreland  Charlotte,   N.   C.  mulatto 

T.  W.  Wallace  East  St.  Louis,  111.  mulatto 

J.  W.  Wood  Philadelphia,  Pa.  mulatto 

The  only  Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 

Isaac  B.  Scott  7T  of  Monrovia,  Liberia.  Scott  is  a  mulatto. 

The  general  officers  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
are  as  follows :  78 

J.   N.   C.    Coggins  Topeka,  Kan.  mulatto 

M.  S.  Davage  New  Orleans,  La.  mulatto 

Samuel  D.  Ferguson  Cape  Palmas,  West  Africa  mulatto 

C.    C.    Jacobs  Sumter,  S.  C.  mulatto 

E.    M.    Jones  Montgomery,  Ala.  mulatto 

Robert  E.  Jones  New  Orleans,  La.  mulatto 

W.    W.    Lucas  Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

George  W.  Moore  Nashville,    Tenn.  mulatto 

I.  G.  Penn  Cincinnati,  O.  mulatto 

I.  L.  Thomas  Baltimore,  Md.  mulatto 

S.  N.  Vass  Raleigh,  N.  C.  mulatto 

J.  P.  Wragg  Atlanta,   Ga.  mulatto 

The  officers  of  the  National  Baptist  Convention  are  as 
follows:79 

S.  W.  Bacote  Kansas  City,  Mo.  mulatto 

R.  H.  Boyd  Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Miss  N.  H.  Burroughs  Washington,  D.   C.  mulatto 

A.   A.   Cosey  Mound  Bayou,  Miss.  mulatto 

S.   E.  Griggs  Memphis,   Tenn.  mulatto 

R.  B.  Hudson  Selma,  Ala.  mulatto 

E.  W.  D.  Isaac  Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

79  One  authority  considered  Lee  a  full-blood  Negro. 
""Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  182. 
"Ibid.,  pp.  182-83. 
78  Ibid.,  p.  182. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          279 


L.  G.  Jordan 
Robert   Mitchell 
E.  C.  Morris 
W.  G.  Parks 
A.  J.  Stokes 


Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Bowling  Green,  Ky. 
Helena,   Ark. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Montgomery,  Ala. 


mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


The  list  of  officers  of  the  New  England  Baptist  Conven 
tion  is  as  follows  :  80 


W.  A.  Harrod,  Cor.  Sec'y 
W.  Bishop  Johnson,  President 
W. .  P.  Lawrence,  Vice-President 
Holland  Powell,  Rec.  Sec. 
Robert   D.   Wynn,   Treasurer 


Connecticut  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.             mulatto 

New  Jersey  mulatto 

New  York  City  mulatto 

New  Jersey  mulatto 


A  summary  of  the  preachers  and  church  officials  thus  far 
mentioned  follows: 

Black     Mulatto  Unknown  Total 
Noted  early  preachers 
Bishops  C.  M.  E.  Church 
Gen.  Officers  C.  M.  E.  Church 
Bishops  A.  M.  Church 
Gen.  Officers  A.  M.  E.  Church 
Bishops  A.  M.  E.  Z.  Church 
Gen.  Officers  A.  M.  E.  Z.  Church 
Bishops  M.  E.  Church 
Gen.  Officers  M.  E.  Church 
Officers  Nat.  Bap.  Conv. 
Officers  New  Eng.  Bap.  Conv. 

Totals 

Names    repeated 


5 

12 

0 

17 

0 

9 

0 

9 

0 

9 

2 

11 

2 

13 

0 

15 

2 

10 

0 

12 

2 

6 

0 

8 

0 

12 

0 

12 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

12 

0 

12 

0 

12 

0 

12 

0 

5 

0 

5 

11 

101 

2 

114 

6 

51 

0 

57 

Corrected  totals 


50 


57 


The    two    Negro    officers 81    of    the    Episcopal    Workers 
Among  the  Colored  People  are  both  mulattoes.82     The  Ne- 


80  Ibid.,  p.   182. 
"Ibid.,  p.  182. 


H.  B.  Delaney,  President,  and  G.  F.  Bragg,  Secretary. 


280  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

gro  members  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Interna 
tional  Sunday  School  Association  already  have  appeared  in 
other  connections  in  the  previous  lists.  The  six  Negro 
priests  in  the  Catholic  Church  83  so  far  as  known  are  mu- 
lattoes.  Father  Augustus  Tolton  of  Chicago,  the  first  Ne 
gro  Priest  in  the  United  States,84  was  a  dark  man  of  mixed 
blood.  Father  Raphard  85  of  Philadelphia,  the  one  Negro 
Priest  in  the  Greek  Catholic  Church,86  is  a  dark  man,  but 
not  a  full-blooded  Negro.  The  Oblates  of  Providence,87  a 
Catholic  Sisterhood,  was  founded  by  Father  Joubert,  a  Sul- 
pician  Priest,  in  1829.  The  four  young  women  who  com 
posed  its  original  membership  were  mulattoes.88  The 
founders,  under  the  direction  of  Father  Rousselon,  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  were  four 
"free  women  of  color."  All  seem  to  have  been  mulattoes.89 
The  Knights  of  Peter  Klaver  was  founded  by  three  white 
men  and  four  Negroes.  Three  of  the  Negroes  were  mulat 
toes,  the  other  of  unknown  ancestry.  Among  the  Interna 
tional  Secretaries  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  are  six  Negroes.90  Four 
of  these  are  known  to  be  mulattoes  and  two  are  unknown. 

Among  these  minor  organizations  of  a  religious  or  semi- 
religious  sort,  then,  there  is  mentioned  but  one  man  of  pre 
sumably  pure  Negro  blood  though  there  are  several  who  are 
unknown. 

A  summary  of  the  organizations  previously  mentioned  is 
as  follows : 

83  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  182. 

84  Died  1913. 

86  Rev.   Robert  Morgan. 

86  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  pp.  183-84. 

^Ibid.,  p.  184. 

88  Catholic  Encyclopaedia. 

89  Ibid. 

90  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  187. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          281 

Black  Mulatto  Unknown 
Officers,  Episcopal  Workers  among 

the  C.  P.  02 
Afro-American  Presbyterian  Council  013 
N.  Members,  Intern.  S.  S.  Association  120 
Negro  Priests,  Catholic  Church  033 
Negro  Priest,  Greek  Catholic  Church  010 
Charter  Members,  Oblates  of  Provi 
dence  040 
Charter  Members,  Sisters  of  the  H. 

Family  040 

Knights  of  Peter  Claver  031 

Y.M.C.A.  International  Secretaries  042 

Totals  1  24  9 

The  foregoing  lists  of  church  bishops  and  other  officials 
and  functionaries  would  seem  to  be  a  fairly  comprehensive 
and  representative  representation  of  the  leadership  among 
the  various  churches  and  church  organizations.  A  sugges 
tion  as  to  the  racial  ancestry  of  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
Negro  ministry  is  given  by  the  photographs  in  the  books, 
magazines,  and  papers  of  the  race.  No  class  among  the 
Negroes  advertise  themselves  with  more  persistency  and 
shamelessness  than  do  the  preachers.  Almost  every  issue 
of  almost  every  Negro  publication  has  from  one  to  a  dozen 
or  twenty  photographic  reproductions  of  preachers  who 
have  delivered,  or  are  about  to  deliver,  some  masterpiece  of 
pulpit  oratory.  The  current  publications  of  the  race,  there 
fore,  furnished  a  rather  rich  assortment  of  Negro  divines. 
A  compilation  of  Negro  preachers  from  these  current  pub 
lications  and  from  the  literature  generally  was  made  and 
classified  as  in  preceding  cases.  The  tabulation  included 
in  all  four  hundred  and  ninety-five  names.  Of  these  eight 
were  of  women  and  four  hundred  and  eighty-seven  were  of 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

men.  Eighty-six  of  the  men  and  three  of  the  women  were 
dark  Negroes  though  not  in  all  cases  full-blooded.  Four 
hundred  and  one  of  the  men  and  five  of  the  women  were 
mulattoes. 

This  study  has  brought  together  the  names  of  six  hun 
dred  and  forty-three  members  of  the  Negro  ministry.  Six 
hundred  and  thirty-five  of  them  are  men.  Ninety-eight  of 
these  are  of  men  who  are,  or  for  social  purposes  may  be 
considered  to  be,  full-blooded  Negroes.  Five  hundred  and 
twenty-six  are  men  who  are  obviously  of  mixed  blood.  There 
are  eight  women,  of  whom  three  are  black  and  five  are  mu 
lattoes.  Nine  of  the  individuals  listed  are  of  unknown  an 
cestry.  The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  blacks  among  the  edu 
cated  and  the  better  known  members  of  the  Negro  ministry 
thus  stands  between  five  and  six  to  one.  When  the  names 
previously  mentioned  are  removed  there  remain  the  names 
of  five  hundred  and  eighty  persons.  Ninety-five  of  these 
are  considered  as  full-bloods  and  four  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  are  known  to  be  mulattoes.  The  ratio  here  stands 
slightly  over  five  to  one. 

In  literature,  the  Negro  has  as  yet  produced  little,  if 
anything,  of  permanent  value.  Much  has  been  attempted 
and  in  many  lines,  but  little,  if  any,  first-class  work  has 
appeared  so  far. 

In  poetry  and  fiction,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  Negroes 
who  have  published  works  have  been  men  ashamed  of  their 
own  race  and  who  have  assimilated  but  imperfectly  the  white 
man's  civilization.  The  works  have  been  imitations  of  the 
white  man,  an  attempt  to  give  artistic  expression  to  a  life 
that  the  writers  did  not  share  and  but  imperfectly  under 
stood.  Ashamed  of  the  black  man,  and  frequently  unac 
quainted  with  him,  the  Negro  writers  have  been  unable, 
or  unwilling,  to  give  expression  to  real  Negro  life.  The 


The  Negro  and  tlie  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          283 

effort  has  been  made  to  present  the  Negro  as  a  white  man 
with  a  colored  skin.91  In  fiction,  as  in  life,  the  effort  to 
make  a  white  man  of  a  Negro  has  failed.  As  a  result  of 
the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  writers  to  understand  either 
the  Negroes  or  the  white  people,  the  Negro  in  literature  has 
been  a  creation  that  is  like  neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 
Aside  from  the  slight  work  of  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar,  a 
frank  interpretation  of  Negro  life  and  Negro  character  by 
a  Negro  who  knows  his  people  and  is  not  ashamed  of  them 
is  yet  to  be  written. 

In  other  forms  of  writing,  the  Negro  has  been  handi 
capped  by  a  lack  of  training.  Few  Negroes  are  trained 
men.  A  dozen  names  include  all  the  men  of  the  race  who 
have  received  a  first-class  university  training.  Even  the 
number  of  college  graduates  is  very  small,  and  most  of 
these  are  from  so-called  colleges  or  universities  which  are 
generally  not  prepared  either  in  equipment  or  faculty  to 
give  a  first-class  high  school  training.  The  graduates  of 
the  best  of  these  "Universities"  at  most  are  trained  in  two 
years  of  college  work.  Consequently  little  is  to  be  expected 
of  the  Negro  in  a  scholarly  way — the  surprise  is  that  there 
has  been  anything.  Of  real  scientific  study  by  Negroes, 
there  has  been  almost  nothing;  of  first-class  historical  study, 
very  little.  On  the  Negro  question,  to  the  discussion  of 
which  the  Negroes  have  contributed  more  in  volume  than  to 
any  other  question,  no  Negro  as  yet  has  been  able  to  give 
an  unbiased,  objective  statement. 

The  only  attempt  worthy  of  any  serious  consideration, 
by  a  member  of  the  race,  to  evaluate  the  writing  of  Negroes 
is  that  of  G.  B.  Brawley.  In  a  small  volume  published  in 

91  The  Negroes  in  fiction  seem  always  to  be  mixed-bloods,  octoroons 
or  near-white,  and  only  the  rough  and  despicable  and  pitiable  charac 
ters  are  black. 


284  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

'  1910,92  he  says  93  that  he  has  attempted 

...  to  test  in  the  light  of  critical  principles  the 
literature  so  far  produced  by  the  Negro  people  of 
America,  and  to  review  their  achievement  in  every  de 
partment  of  the  fine  arts.  Much  that  has  been  writ 
ten  on  the  Negro  Problem,  while  it  may  have  some  value 
in  the  search  for  truth,  is,  from  the  standpoint  of  po 
lite  literature,  absolutely  worthless;  so  that  compara 
tively  little  of  the  writing  on  this  large  subject  has  been 
considered. 

He  discusses  the  work  of  five  writers  of  the  race  who  have 
more  or  less  claim  to  consideration  as  writers  of  literature. 
Two  of  these,  Phyllis  Wheatley  Peters  and  Paul  Laurence 
Dunbar,  were  pure-blooded  Negroes.  The  other  three:  C.  W. 
Chestnutt,  W.  E.  B.  DuBois  and  W.  S.  Braithwaite,  are 
men  of  mixed  blood.  All  of  these  persons  have  been  men 
tioned  in  other  connections  in  this  or  the  preceding  chapters. 

These  persons,  according  to  Mr.  Brawley,  compose  the 
list  of  Negroes  who  have  produced  anything  in  the  way  of 
literature.  In  a  further  chapter 94  on  "Other  Writers," 
whilst  making  no  claim  that  they  have  produced  any  litera 
ture,  he  mentions  nineteen  other  writers  with  more  or  less 
claim  to  note.  Three  of  these  seem  to  be  white  persons,95 
two  to  be  black  or  nearly  so,  and  fourteen  to  be  persons  of 
mixed  blood.  All  these  persons,  with  the  exception  of  Inez 
C.  Parker,  an  imitator  of  Dunbar,  and  Mrs.  A.  E.  John 
son,  the  author  of  a  Sunday  School  book,  have  been  included 
in  one  or  more  of  the  preceding  lists.  Both  these  women 
seem  to  be  mulattoes. 

In  this  connection,  perhaps,  should  be  mentioned  The  Jour- 

83  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art. 

*  Preface. 

•*  Chapter  VII,  pp.  35-38. 

86  William  C.  Frost,  H.  B.  Frissell  and  Lidia  Marie  Childs. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          285 

nal  of  Xegro  History,  the  first  issue  of  which  appeared  in 
January,  1916.  It  is  almost  exclusively  the  work  of  white 
men  and  women  and  mulattoes.  The  Executive  council  and 
list  of  associate  editors  as  announced  in  the  first  issue  in 
cluded  the  names  of  eleven  Negroes,  ten  of  whom  are  mu 
lattoes.  Omitting  the  names  of  white  persons  connected 
with  the  publication  and  also  the  names  of  Negroes  included 
in  other  compilations,  four  names  remain.  These  men  are: 

J.    A.    Bigham  Atlanta  mulatto 

Walter  Dyson  Washington  mulatto 

A.  D.  Jackson  Chicago  mulatto 

G.  C.  Wilkinson  Washington  mulatto 

In  a  pamphlet  reprinted  from  the  Fourteenth  Report  of 
the  Atlanta  Conference,  under  the  title  Negro  Literature, 
are  mentioned  some  sixty-five  names  exclusive  of  the  white 
persons  included  apparently  by  mistake.  Forty-three  of 
these  names  have  been  mentioned  in  other  connections.  Of 
the  names  remaining,  twelve  are  of  mulattoes  and  ten  are 
names  or  pseudonyms  of  individuals  concerning  whom  there 
is  nothing  known.  Of  the  total  number,  five  seem  to  have 
been  black.96  The  others  so  far  as  known  were  mulattoes. 

A  further  compilation  of  the  names  of  Negro  writers 
mentioned  in  the  literature  includes  almost  every  Negro  who 
has  risen  to  any  prominence.97  But  in  relatively  few  cases 
does  their  best  claim  to  distinction  rest  upon  their  published 
works.  They  have  in  most  cases,  therefore,  been  included 
in  other  divisions  of  this  chapter  or  in  the  preceding  chap 
ters.  There  still  remain,  however,  the  names  of  forty-nine 

B8Wheatley,  Dunbar,  Sinclair,  Miller  and  Crummell. 

87 ".  .  .  A  list  of  2,200  negro  authors  was  once  compiled  by  the  Li 
brary  of  Congress  and  investigation  showed  that  with  very  few  ex 
ceptions  these  Negro  authors  came  from  the  mixed  stock."  C.  A.  Ell- 
wood,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  p.  206. 


286  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

individuals  who  have  published  works  of  more  or  less  im 
portance  and  who  are  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  Adding  to 
these  the  two  mentioned  by  Brawley,  four  men  on  the  Edi 
torial  Staff  of  The  Journal  of  Negro  History  and  twelve 
from  the  pamphlet  on  Negro  Literature,  we  have  a  total  oi 
sixty-seven  names  of  individuals  whose  reputations  rest 
wholly  or  in  part  on  their  ability  as  literary  artists,  and  who 
have  not  been  mentioned  elsewhere  in  these  chapters.  Fifty- 
nine  of  these  are  names  of  men,  and  eight  are  names  of 
women.  All  the  women  are  mulattoes.  Four  of  the  men 
are  full-blooded  Negroes,  while  the  remaining  fifty-five  are 
mulattoes.  Of  the  total  sixty-seven,  four  are  pure  Negroes 
and  sixty-three  are  of  mixed  ancestry — a  ratio  of  nearly 
sixteen  to  one. 

In  the  field  of  Negro  journalism,  new  ventures  are  made 
almost  every  week  and  old  ventures  fail  with  almost  equal 
frequency.  Most  of  the  journals  have  a  short  and  not  very 
prosperous  existence.  Of  the  thousands  of  such  ventures 
since  John  B.  Russwurm  started  The  Journal  of  Freedom 
in  1827,  there  was,  in  1914,  a  total  of  four  hundred  and  fifty 
being  published.98 

A  list  was  made  of  the  more  important  of  these  journals 
and  their  editors  taken  as  representing  one  phase  of  leader 
ship.  A  goodly  number  of  these  men  are  editors  only  inci 
dentally  and  have  been  mentioned  in  other  connections. 
Eighty-eight,  however,  have  not  been  included  elsewhere.  Of 
this  list,  seven — all  mulattoes — are  women.  Eighty-one  are 
men,  twelve  of  whom  are  black  men  and  sixty-nine,  mulat 
toes.  Of  the  eighty-eight,  seventy-six  are  mulattoes  and 
twelve  are  black — a  ratio  of  something  over  six  to  one. 

In  the  field  of  artistic  and  semi-artistic  endeavor,  the 
Negro  is  almost  unrepresented.  The  few  individuals  who 

m  Negro  Year  Book,  1914-1915,  p.  373. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          287 

have  made  success  already  have  been  mentioned  in  other  con 
nections.  H.  O.  Tanner  in  painting  and  Meta  Vaux  War- 
rick  "  in  sculpture  are  the  most  conspicuous  examples  of 
artistic  success.  Both  these  persons  are  of  mixed  blood; 
Tanner  is  light  and  Miss  Warrick  dark.  E.  M.  Bannister, 
a  New  England  mulatto,  was  perhaps  the  first  Negro  to 
succeed  as  an  artist.  Brawley  1(l°  mentions  William  A.  Har 
per,  a  mulatto  of  Chicago,  as  among  the  more  promising  of 
the  younger  painters.  As  sculptors  of  success  or  promise 
should  be  mentioned  Edmonia  Lewis  and  Bertina  Lee. 
Both  are  mulattoes.  In  addition  to  these  six  names  men 
tioned  by  Brawley  as  worthy  of  serious  consideration,  men 
tion  was  made  in  the  literature  of  five  other  painters  of 
some  note  who  have  not  been  mentioned  elsewhere.  In  each 
of  these  cases,  the  individuals  are  mulatto  men.  Five  of  the 
six  names  mentioned  by  Brawley  have  been  mentioned  else 
where. 

On  the  stage,  in  competition  with  the  performers  of  the 
white  race  and  playing  before  audiences  of  white  people, 
very  few  Negroes  have  been  able  to  make  even  a  tolerable 
success.  Whether  due  to  a  peculiarly  difficult  apprentice 
ship  through  which  the  Negro  with  stage  ambitions  must 
pass  101  or  to  a  relative  absence  from  the  race  of  any  his 
trionic  ability  of  a  high  order,102  the  number  of  Negro 
stage  celebrities  is  very  small.  The  drama  has  had  no  con 
siderable  following  among  the  race,  and  the  productions  de 
pending  upon  race  patronage  for  support  generally  have 
not  been  of  a  high  order  of  merit.  Brawley  103  names  Ira 

"Mrs.  S.  C.  Fuller. 

100  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  p.  44. 

101  Brawley,  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  p.  39. 

103  P.  A.  Bruce,  "Race  Segregation  in  the  United  States,"  The  Hib- 
bert  Journal,  Vol.  13,  p.  877. 

109  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  pp.  39  ff. 


288  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

Aldridge  as  the  one  Negro  who  succeeded  in  the  legitimate 
drama.  Aldridge  was  a  mulatto.  In  musical  comedy,  he 
names  Bert  A.  Williams  and  Aida  Overton  Walker  as  the 
most  successful.  Both  are  mulattoes. 

From  various  other  sources,  a  compilation  was  made  of 
the  more  popular  Negro  players.104  Excluding  names  pre 
viously  mentioned,  the  list  contained  the  names  of  one  hun 
dred  and  thirteen  men  and  women  with  more  or  less  claim 
to  distinction.  Fifty-nine  of  these  names  were  of  women, 
and  fifty-four  were  of  men.  Four  of  the  women  and  four  of 
the  men  are  dark-colored  Negroes  of  approximately  full 
blood.  Fifty-five  of  the  women  and  fifty  of  the  men  are  ob 
viously  mulattoes,  in  a  large  per  cent  of  cases  very  light- 
colored  mulattoes.  Of  the  total  number,  one  hundred  and 
thirteen,  one  hundred  and  five  are  mulattoes  and  eight  are 
Negroes  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  blood,  a  ratio  somewhat  over 
thirteen  to  one.  Most  of  the  more  talented  and  better- 
known  Negro  actors  have  been  mentioned  in  other  compila 
tions,  and  so  are  excluded  from  this  summary.  They  are 
in  every  case  persons  of  mixed  blood.  To  include  them  in 
the  summary  would  slightly  raise  the  proportion  of  mulat 
toes. 

Several  Negroes  have  been  more  or  less  justly  famed  for 
their  ability  as  orators.  Brawley 105  names  Frederick 
Douglass,  J.  C.  Price,  and  Booker  T.  Washington  as  the 
most  conspicuous.  Price  was  a  black  man ;  the  other  two 
were  mulattoes.  Oratory,  however,  is  an  abdominal  rather 
than  cerebral  exercise,  so  there  seemed  no  reason  for  mak 
ing  a  special  category  to  include  men  gifted  in  this  way. 
Such  men,  in  case  they  seemed  to  be  of  some  consequence, 

1M  A  few  readers  not  elsewhere  mentioned  are  included  in  this  com 
pilation. 

108  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  pp.  41-42. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          289 

have  been  placed  in  other  lists. 

The  plantation  melodies  were  the  Negro's  first  efforts  in 
a  musical  way  and  his  reputation  for  music  rests  for  the 
most  part  upon  this  crude,  primitive  music.  These  melo 
dies  seem  to  be  distinctly  an  American  product — the  Afri 
can  had  no  music — and  largely  a  product  of  the  latter  days 
of  slavery.  They  express  in  a  simple  way  the  joys  and  sor 
rows  of  an  untutored  people.  It  was  in  the  rendition  of  this 
music  that  the  Negro  excelled.  The  words  are  of  unknown 
origin  and  of  no  literary  value,  generally  without  sense.  The 
plantation  melodies  were  very  close  to  wordless  music. 

Later  the  Negroes  adopted  and  sometimes  adapted  the 
simple  church  hymns ;  they  sometimes  excel  in  the  produc 
tion  of  this  sort  of  music.  A  relatively  small  and  untrained 
congregation  frequently  is  able  to  produce  effective  church 
music.  The  "coon  songs"  so  far  as  composition  was  con 
cerned  were  largely  the  work  of  white  men.  In  "rag  time" 
the  Negro  had  a  minor  part  though  the  assertion  that  it 
is  a  racial  product  has  about  the  same  claim  to  credence 
as  has  the  claim  that  it  is  music. 

However  the  Negro  already  has  done  something  in  a  mu 
sical  way.  "There  are  scattered  indications,"  says  Kelly 
Miller,106  "that  the  Negro  possesses  ambition  and  capacity 
for  high-grade  classical  music."  A  few  vocalists  have  ap 
peared  whose  reputation  rests  upon  something  more  than 
the  prestige  of  color.107  A  small  number  have  a  musical 
education,  several  are  successful  writers  of  popular  songs, 
while  others  have  made  some  reputation  as  performers.  But 
on  the  whole,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  Negro  in  music 

10« Race  Adjustment,  p.  241. 

107  There  is  a  popular  myth  more  or  less  current  in  both  the  races  that 
the  Negro  is  a  natural  musician  and  the  audience  finds  in  the  most 
barbarous  performance  by  Negro  talent  the  thing  for  which  their 
prepossessions  call. 


290  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

is  a  promise  rather  than  a  reality.108 

No  critical  study  apparently  has  been  made  of  the  Ne 
gro  musicians,  and  no  compilation  of  any  considerable  num 
ber  of  the  leading  ones.  Johnson  109  names  seven  composers, 
performers,  or  teachers  of  music.  Brawley  mentions  twen 
ty-four110  who  have  made  some  success  in  a  musical  way. 
Elsewhere  throughout  the  literature,  other  individuals  of 
talent  or  promise  are  mentioned.  From  the  various  sources, 
a  compilation  was  made  without  an  attempt  on  the  part  of 
the  present  writer  to  evaluate  the  compositions,  the  vocal 
power,  or  the  technical  skill  of  the  persons  mentioned.  The 
miscellaneous  list  thus  secured  included  in  all,  exclusive  of 
those  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  study,  the  names  of  one  hun 
dred  and  seventy-one  musicians  and  composers.  One  hundred 
and  ten  of  these  are  names  of  men  and  sixty-one  are  names 
of  women.  Of  the  men  one  hundred  were  mulattoes  and  ten 
were  black  men.  Of  the  women,  three  were  found  to  be  black 
and  fifty-eight  to  be  mulattoes.  Of  the  one  hundred  and 
seventy-one,  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  are  mulattoes  and 
thirteen  are  Negroes  of  full  blood.  This  is  on  the  basis  of 
classing  as  full-blooded  all  individuals  who  are  approxi 
mately  so.  This  is  a  ratio  of  slightly  over  twelve  to  one. 

A  recapitulation  of  the  various  lists  of  men  and  women 
whose  ethnic  composition  has  been  analyzed  in  this  chapter 
shows  a  total  of  2,129  names.  Of  these,  1,844  are  names 
of  men  and  285  are  names  of  women.  The  1,844  men  divide 

108  No  account  is  here  taken  of  the  indecent  songs   as  they  are   for 
the  most  part  unwritten.     For  their  number  and  variety  and  for  the 
extent  to  which  they  are  generally  known  by  the  children   as  well  as 
by  the  men   of  the  race,  as   well  as    for  their   minutely  detailed  vul 
garity  and  lascivious  indecency  they  are  perhaps  not  equaled  by  the 
lewd  literature  of  any  people. 

109  James   W.   Johnson,  "The   Negro  of   To-day  in  Music,"   Charities, 
Vol.  15,  pp.  58-59. 

110  The  Negro  in  Literature  and  Art,  pp.  53  ff. 


The  Negro  and  the  Mulatto  in  Pursuits          291 


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292  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

into  206  Negroes  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  blood  and  1,638 
of  mixed  blood.  The  285  women  divided  into  18  pure  and 
267  of  mixed  blood.  The  total  number  of  black  Negroes 
is  224;  the  total  number  of  mulattoes  is  1,905.  The  ratio 
of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  full  blood  is  slightly  more  than 
eight  and  one-half  to  one.  The  relationship  existing  in  the 
different  groups  is  best  shown  in  the  tabulation  (see  p.  291). 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    NEGRO    AND    THE    MULATTO    IN    BUSINESS    AND    INDUSTRY 

IN  the  business  and  economic  world,  the  Negro  has  not 
as  yet  been  able  to  enter  into  successful  competition 
with  other  more  energetic  and  commercially-minded  peoples. 
The  half-century  since  the  Emancipation  has  seen  the  race 
crowded  out,  little  by  little,  from  many  of  the  occupations 
in  which  it  formerly  held  a  virtual  monopoly. 

There  are,  however,  numerous  instances  of  Negroes  who 
have  made  a  success  in  a  larger  or  smaller  way  in  the  busi 
ness  life  of  the  community.  Where  the  Negro  has  been  suf 
ficiently  isolated  from  competition  with  other  peoples,  indi 
viduals  have  been  able  to  build  up  successful  business  enter 
prises.  In  general,  this  has  been  by  building  up  a  business 
within  the  race,  though  there  are  numerous  instances  of 
successful  business  enterprises  that  do  not  depend  entirely 
upon  race  patronage.  In  fact,  the  United  States  Census 
figures  seem  to  bear  out  the  statement  1  that  there  is  little 
possibility  of  a  Negro  business  man  making  a  living  solely 
from  the  patronage  of  the  race.  Two-thirds  of  his  patron 
age  must  be  white  in  order  for  him  to  succeed.  The  accu 
racy  of  such  a  generalization  varies  with  the  section  of  the 
country  and  the  nature  of  the  business  enterprise. 

Booker  T.  Washington  has  brought  together  a  large 
group  of  inconspicuous  Negroes  who  have  made  some  de- 

*The  Colored  People  of  Chicago:  An  Investigation  Made  for  the 
Juvenile  Protective  Association,  1913. 

293 


294  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

gree  of  success  in  the  business  or  industrial  world.2  The 
group  includes  farmers,  grocers,  barbers,  and  men  of  that 
general  type.  The  men  mentioned,  then,  are,  for  the  most 
part,  of  no  particular  individual  concern,  but  as  a  whole 
they  represent  what  is  best  and  most  prosperous  among  the 
Negro  middle-class  group.  To  attempt  to  find  the  racial 
ancestry  of  many  of  these  men  would  require  an  amount 
of  work  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  significance  of  the  find 
ings.  No  attempt  has  been  made,  therefore,  to  make  the  in 
formation  concerning  this  group  of  men  complete.  Consid 
erably  over  half  the  number,  including  all  the  more  con 
spicuous  ones,  have  been  determined  and  the  findings  given 
for  what  they  may  be  worth.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  relative  ratios  of  blacks  and  mulattoes  would  be 
materially  altered,  if  the  data  were  brought  to  complete 
ness. 

The  total  list  of  men  and  women  mentioned  in  the  volume 
contains  the  names  of  some  persons  previously  mentioned 
in  other  connections  and  a  larger  number,  including  nearly 
all  of  any  real  importance,  will  appear  in  a  later  and  more 
representative  list.3  The  list  of  names,  therefore,  is  not 
reproduced  here,  but  a  summary  is  given  showing  the  dis 
tribution  into  mulattoes  and  full-blooded  Negroes  of  those 
not  elsewhere  mentioned.  This  list  includes  the  names  of 
twenty-three  women  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  men. 
Of  the  men,  eleven  seem  to  be  black  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty-four  are  mulattoes.  Twenty-two  of  the  women  are 
mulattoes  and  one  seems  to  be  a  full-blooded  Negress.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  individuals,  twelve  are 
classed  as  black  and  one  hundred  and  forty-six  are  mulat 
toes.  The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  blacks  in  this  list  is  slightly 

2  The  Negro  in  Business. 
8  Pages  298  ff.  below. 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     295 

over  twelve  to  one. 

Of  the  successful  business  enterprises  carried  on  by  Ne 
groes,  the  most  conspicuous,  perhaps,  are  the  Negro  banks. 
These  institutions  in  most  cases  are  small  but  their  presi 
dents  form,  if  not  the  best,  at  least  the  most  conspicuous, 
class  of  successful  men  in  the  Negro  business  world.  They 
are  the  business  aristocracy.  For  this  reason,  the  group 
of  Negro  bankers  has  been  selected  for  analysis  into  the 
black  and  mixed  elements  for  the  light  that  it  may  give  in 
determining  the  relative  success  of  these  elements  in  the 
economic  and  commercial  life  of  the  community. 

The  Negro  Year  Book  4  gives  the  list  of  Negro  banks  and, 
where  known,  their  presidents.  The  total  list  includes  the 
names  of  fifty-eight  separate  institutions.  In  seven  cases, 
the  president  of  the  institution  is  not  given.  Of  the  fifty- 
one  presidents  named,  the  ancestry  of  twelve  was  not  de 
termined.  Of  the  thirty-nine  institutions  whose  presidents 
are  known,  four  seem  to  be  black  men  and  thirty-five  mulat- 
toes,  a  ratio  of  about  nine  to  one.  Seventeen  of  the  fifty- 
one  have  been  mentioned  in  other  connections.  Of  the  seven 
teen  previously  mentioned,  all  are  mulattoes.  The  list  of 
banks,  omitting  those  whose  presidents  have  been  mentioned 
in  other  connections,  is  taken  from  the  Year  Book.  There 
is  here  added  information,  where  the  facts  are  known,  in 
regard  to  the  ethnic  composition  of  the  presidents  of  the 
institutions. 

Alabama  Penny  Saving  and  Loan       J.  O.  Diffay  mulatto 

Company 

Birmingham,  Ala. 
Alabama  Savings  Bank  Henry  A.  Boyd  mulatto 

Selma,  Ala. 
American  Bank  Wm.  D.  Neighbors  mulatto 

Chicago,   111. 

*  Issue  of  1914-1915,  pp.  311-13. 


296 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Anderson  Tucker  and  Company,       C.   H.  Anderson  black 

Bankers 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Anniston  Penny  Savings  Bank  T.  J.  Jackson  mulatto 

Anniston,  Ala. 
Atlanta  State  Savings  Bank  J.  (X  Ross  mulatto 

Atlanta,  Ga. 
Bank  Boley  and  Trust  Company        Johnson  mulatto 

Boley,  Okla. 
Bank  of  Mound  Bayou  J.  W.  Frances  mulatto 

Mound  Bayou,  Miss. 
Brickhouse  Savings  Bank  B.  T.  Coard,  Jr.  

Hare  Valley,  Va. 
Crown  Savings  Bank  E.  C.  Brown  mulatto 

Newport  News,  Va. 
Delta  Penny  Savings  Bank  W.   A.   Attaway  mulatto 

Indianola,   Miss. 
Dime  Bank  T.  B.  Holloway  

Kinston,  N.  C. 
Enterprise  Savings  Bank  John  M.  Mosby  

Springfield,  111. 

Farmers'    and    Citizens'    Savings       E.  M.  Griggs  black 

Bank 

Palestine,  Texas 
Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  Bank          W.  A.  Redwine  

Tyler,  Texas 

Forsyth  Savings  and  Trust  Com-       J.  S.  Hill  

pany 

Winston-Salem,  N.  C. 

Fraternal  Bank  and  Trust  Com-       W.  H.  McDonald,  Cashier       

pany 

Fort  Worth,  Texas 

Fraternal     Savings     Bank     and       J.  J.  Scott  mulatto 

Trust  Company 

Memphis,  Tenn. 
Houston  Savings  Bank  Melvin  J.  Chisum  mulatto 

Salisbury,  Md. 
Industrial  Savings   Bank  John  W.   Lewis  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Isaac   Smith   Trust   Company  Isaac  H.  Smith  black 

Newbern,  N.  C. 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     £97 


Mechanics'  Investment  Co. 

Savannah,.  Ga 
Montgomery  Penny  Savings 
Bank 

Montgomery,  Ala. 
Mutual  Aid  and  Banking  Com 
pany 

Newbern,  N.  C. 
Mutual  Savings  Bank 

Portsmouth,  Va. 
Nickel  Savings   Bank 

Richmond,   Va. 
Or  gen  Savings  Bank 
Houston,  Texas 
Penny  Savings   Bank 
Columbus,  Miss. 

People's  Bank  and  Trust  Com 
pany 

Muskogee,  Okla. 

People's  Dime  Savings  Bank  and 
Trust  Co. 

Staunton,  Va. 

People's  Savings  Bank  and  Trust 
Company 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

Solvent  Savings  Bank  and  Trust 
Company 

Memphis,  Tenn. 

Sons  and  Daughters  of  Peace 
Penny,  Nickel  &  Dime  Sav 
ings  Bank 

Newport  News,  Va. 
Southern  One  Cent  Savings  Bank 
Waynesboro,  Va. 


A.  L.  Tucker 

N.  H.  Alexander 

J.  P.  Stanley 

J.  F.  Riddick 
R.  F.  Taniel 
F.  L.  Lights 
W.  L.  Mitchell 
L.  A.  Bell 

Samuel  Lindsay 
J.  M.  Townsend 
J.  M.  Sanford 
S.  A.  Howell 

D.  W.  Baker 


mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 


black 


mulatto 


mulatto 


mulatto 


This  list  includes  the  names  of  thirty-four  men  not  here 
tofore  mentioned.  In  twelve  cases,  the  ancestry  of  these 
men  was  not  determined.  In  the  twenty-two  remaining 
cases,  four  are  names  of  men  of  full  blood  and  eighteen  are 
names  of  mulattoes. 

Of  the  various  organizations  of  Negro  business  men,  the 


298 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


largest  is  the  National  Negro  Business  League.  This  orga 
nization  was  founded  in  1900  and,  with  its  subsidiary  state 
organizations,  numbers  among  its  members  almost  every 
Negro  of  business  or  of  professional  importance  anywhere 
in  the  country.  The  life  members  of  the  organization  form 
the  most  representative  list  of  successful  and  leading  Ne 
groes  anywhere  available.  The  officers  elected  for  1914- 
1915,  the  Executive  Committee  and  the  list  of  Life  Mem 
bers  as  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Fifteenth  Annual  Con 
vention  of  the  League  have  been  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order  and  are  here  reproduced.  To  the  lists  as  given  in  the 
report,  is  here  added  the  fact  of  mixed  or  pure  blood  in  all 
cases  where  the  facts  could  be  obtained. 

The  officers  elected  for  1914-1915  were  as  follows: 


Booker  T.  Washington 

Tuskegee,  Ala. 
Charles  Banks 

Mound  Bayou,  Miss. 
J.  E.  Bush 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 
John  M.  Wright 

Topeka,  Kansas 
P.  J.  Allston 

Boston,  Mass. 
Charles  H.  Brooks 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Emmett  J.  Scott 

Tuskegee,  Alabama 
Charles  H.  Anderson 

Jacksonville,    Fla. 
F.  H.  Gilbert 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
R.  C.  Houston 

Fort  Worth,  Texas 
William  H.  Davis 

Washington,  D.  C. 
E.  A.  Robinson 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 


President  mulatto 

First  Vice-President  black 

Second   Vice-President  mulatto 

Third   Vice-President  mulatto 

Fourth  Vice-President  mulatto 

Fifth   Vice-President  mulatto 

Secretary  mulatto 

Treasurer  mulatto 

Registrar  mulatto 

Assistant  Registrar  mulatto 

Official  Stenographer  mulatto 

Sergeant  at  Arms  mulatto 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry    299 


The  executive  committee  was  given  as  follows 


W.  T.  Andrews 
J.  B.  Bell 
S.  E.  Courtney 
S.  G.  Elbert 
T.  J.  Elliott 

W.  C.  Gordon 

George  C.  Hall 

T.  H.  Hayes 

Algernon  B.  Jackson 

J.  C.  Jackson 

R.  E.  Jones 

Scipio  A.  Jones 

J.  C.  Napier,  Chairman 

Logan  H.  Stewart 


Sumpter,  S.  C. 
Houston,  Texas 
Boston,  Mass. 
Wilmington,  Del. 
Muskogee,  Okla. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Chicago,  111. 
Memphis,    Tenn. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lexington,  Ky. 
New  Orleans,  La. 
Little   Rock,  Ark. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Evansville,  Ind. 


The  list  of  life  members  was  given  as  follows 


Cyrus  Field  Adams 
M.  S.   Alexander 
William  Alexander 
Phillip  J.  Allston 
Charles  W.  Anderson 
W.  T.  Andrews 
W.  A.  Attaway 
Henry  Avant 
W.  H.  Ballard 
Charles  Banks 
Mrs.  Charles  Banks 
Charles  T.  Bass 
Mme.  I.  B.  Beale 
J.  B.  Bell 
E.  C.  Berry 
Jesse  Binga 
JT.  H.  Blodgett 
James   A.   Bond 
Theophilus    Bond 
Eugene  P.   Booze 
J.  W.  E.  Bowen 
H.   A.   Boyd 
R.  F.  Boyd 


Chicago,  111. 
Millard,  La. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Boston,  Mass. 
New  York  City 
Sumter,  S.  C. 
Greenville,  Miss. 
Helena,   Ark. 
Lexington,   Ky. 
Mound   Bayou,  Miss. 
Mound  Bayou,  Miss. 
Sullivan,    Ind. 
West  Newton,  Mass. 
Houston,   Texas 
Athens,   Ohio 
Chicago,  111. 
Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Williamsburg,  Ky. 
Madison,   Ark. 
Mound  Bayou,  Miss. 
Atlanta,   Ga. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 


mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

and  Indian 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


300 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


R.   H.   Boyd 
Charles   H.   Brooks 
W.   H.    Brooks 
D.  H.  Brown 
Ira  T.  Bryant 
Nannie  H.  Burroughs 
W.  M.  Burroughs 
Chester   E.   Bush 
Mrs.  Cora  E.  Bush 
J.  E.  Bush 
J.  A.  Cabaniss 
R.   C.   Calhoun 
T.  J.  Calloway 
Richard  Carroll 
James  G.  Carter 
H.   M.  Charles 
R.  R.  Church 
George  W.  Clinton 
J.  A.  Cobb 
Walter  L.   Cohen 
N.  W.  ColUer 
Bishop    E.    Cottrell 
Samuel  E.  Courtney 
John    Covington 
A.  C.  Cowan 
W.  Alexander  Cox 
W.  W.  Cox 
Mrs.   Belle  Davis 
Charles  T.  Davis 
George  W.  Davis 
Wm.   H.  Davis 
A.  C.  Dungee 
S.   G.   Elbert 
Mrs.  S.  G.  Elbert 
T.   J.   Elliott 
J.  Emanuel 
Wm.  P.  Evans 
C.  E.  Ford 
G.  W.  Franklin 
S.  A.  Furniss 


Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Philadelphia,   Pa.  mulatto 

New  York  City  mulatto5 

St.    Augustine,   Fla.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Louisville,  Ky.  mulatto 

Memphis,  Tenn.  

Little  Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Eatonville,   Fla.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Columbia,  S.  C.  mulatto 

Tamatave,  Madagascar  mulatto 

New   Orleans,   La.  mulatto 

Memphis,    Tenn.  mulatto 

Charlotte,  N.  C.  black 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

New  Orleans,  La.  mulatto 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  mulatto 

Holly   Springs,   Miss.  mulatto 

Boston,  Mass.  mulatto 

Houston,  Texas  black 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  mulatto 

Cambridge,  Mass.  mulatto 

Indianola,  Miss.  mulatto 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  mulatto 

Council   Bluffs,   Iowa  mulatto 

Muskogee,  Okla.  mulatto 

Washington,  D.  C.  mulatto 

Montgomery,  Ala.  mulatto 

Wilmington,  Del.  mulatto 

Wilmington,  Del.  mulatto 

Muskogee,  Okla.  mulatto8 

New  York  City  black 

Laurinburg,  N.  C.  mulatto 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  mulatto 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.  black 

Indianapolis,   Ind.  mulatto 


°One  authority  calls  Brooks  a  full-blood. 

•A  mixture  of  white,  Negro  and  Creek  Indian. 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     301 


James  E.  Garner 

J.  H.  Garner 

George  A.  Gates 

Mifflin  W.  Gibbs 

F.  H.  Gilbert 

C.  W.  Gilliam 

W.  L.  Girideau 

James   H.  Gordon 

W.  C.  Gordon 

A.  A.  Graham 

Bishop  Abraham  Grant 

F.  A.  Gray 

Miss  Mary  A.  Gray 
C.  A.  Groves 
J.  G.  Groves 
Walter  P.   Hall 
J.  A.  Hamlin 
James  R.  Hamm 
Mrs.  Carol  V.  Harris 
Gilbert  C.  Harris 
J.  H.  Harris 
Henry  A.  Hatcher 
Allen    Hatter 
John  R.  Hawkins 
Thomas  H.  Hayes 
Wm.  V.  Hewitt 
John  A.   Kibbler 
George  Hoagland 
W.   H.  Holtzclaw 
A.  C.  Howard 
Alexander  S.  Howard 
P.  W.  Howard 
S.    P.    Hurst 

G.  M.  Howell 
J.  C.  Jackson 
E.   B.  Jefferson 
A.  N.  Johnson 
C.  F.  Johnson 
W.  H.  Johnson 
W.  I.  Johnson 
E.  P.  Jones 


New  York  City 
Columbia,  S.  C. 
Nashville,    Tenn. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Okolona,   Miss. 
Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Pheobus,  Va. 
Kansas  City,  Kan. 
Greenwood,  Miss. 
Paris,  111. 
Edwardsville,  Kan. 
Edwardsville,  Kan. 
Philadelphia,   Pa. 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Boston,  Mass. 
Chicago,  111. 
Boston,  Mass. 
England,  Ark. 
Waterbury,  Conn. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Muskogee,  Okla. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Bloomington,  111. 
Utica,   Miss. 
New  York  City 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Jackson,  Miss. 
Clarksdale,  Miss. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Lexington,  Ky. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Mobile,  Ala. 
Baynesville,  Va. 
Richmond,  Va. 
Vicksburg,  Miss. 


mulatto 
mulatto 

7 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 


7  One  authority  says  that  Gates  is  a  white  man. 


302 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Miss  Hazel  K.  Jones 

R.  E.  Jones 

Scipio  A.  Jones 

T.  W.  Jones 

L.  G.  Jordan 

Mrs.  Mary  Josenberger 

C.  W.  Keatts 
W.  A.   Kennedy 
Willis  A.  Kersey 
H.  W.  Keys 

H.  H.  King 

D.  L.  Knight 
J.  A.  Lankford 
J.  R.  Levy 

A.  L.  Lewis 
J.  H.  Lewis 
M.  N.  Lewis 
Warren  Logan 
W.  L.  Majors 
M.  C.  B.  Mason 
U.  G.  Mason 
Anthony   McCarthy 
J.  B.  McCulloch 

E.  E.  McDaniel 
J.  D.  McDuffy 

D.  C.  McGilbray 

E.  H.  McKissack 
Moses  McKissack 
Kelly  Miller 

T.  J.  Minton 
I.   T.  Montgomery 
P.  J.  Morgan 
T.  Clay  Moore 
E.  C.  Morris 
*.  R.  Moton 
W.  O.  Murphy 
J.  C.  Napier 
Mrs.  J.  C.  Napier 
W.  D.  Neighbors 
Dave  Nelson 


Little  Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 

New  Orleans,  La.  mulatto 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 

Topeka,  Kansas  mulatto 

Louisville,  Ky.  mulatto 

Fort  Smith,  Ark.  mulatto 

Little   Rock,  Ark.  mulatto 
Boley,  Ofcla.  ....... 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Yazoo  City,  Miss.  mulatto 

Louisville,  Ky.  black8 

Jacksonville,    Fla.  mulatto 

Florence,  S.  C.  mulatto 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  mulatto 

Boston,  Mass.  mulatto 

Newport  News,  Va.  mulatto 

Tuskegee,  Ala.  mulatto 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  mulatto 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  black 

Birmingham,  Ala.  mulatto 

jNew  York  City  mulatto 

Muskogee,  Okla.  mulatto 

5.  McAlester,  Okla.  mulatto 

Ocala,  Fla.  mulatto 

Boynton,  Okla.  

Holly   Springs,  Miss.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  

Washington,  D.  C.  black 

Philadelphia,    Pa.  mulatto 

Mound  Bayou,  Miss.  mulatto  8 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Helena,   Ark.  mulatto 

Hampton,  Va.  black 

Atlanta,  Ga.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

Chicago,  111.  mulatto 

Scotts,  Ark.  mulatto 


8  Or  nearly  so. 

8  Often  incorrectly  called  a   full-blood  Negro. 


Negro  and   'Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     303 


F.  M.  Nesbitt 
Charles  Nunn 
Berry  O'Kelly 
R.  C.  Owens 
Mrs.  R.  C.  Owens 
Inman   E.   Page 
Thomas  F.  Parks 
C.   H.  Parrish 
Fred  D.  Patterson 
Spenser   Patterson 

F.  A.  Payton,  Jr. 
A.  C.  Perdue 

E.  S.  Peters 

James  T.  Peterson 

W.  R.  Pettiford 

L.  M.  Porter 

Wm.  M.  Porter 

Troy  Porter 

Harry  T.  Pratt 

S.  D.  Redmond 

Mrs.  Leila  Walker  Robinson 

W.  E.  Roberson 

Wade  C.  Rollins 

J.  O.  Ross 

P.   C.   Roundtree 

H.  A.  Rucker 

Mrs.  Daisy  Saffell 

J.  S.  Sanford 

M.   P.   Saunders 

G.  W.  F.  Sawner 
Mrs.  Lena  Sawner 
E.  J.  Sawyer 

W.  A.  Scott 

Scott,  Wilkerson  and  Scott 

S.  R.  Scottron 

T.  J.  Searcy 

G.  W.  Shadwell 

H.  C.  Shepherd 

W.  H.  Sims 

Alfred  Smith 


Memphis,  Tenn. 
Haughville,   Ind. 
Method,  N.  C. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Langston,    Okla. 
Louisville,  Ky. 
Louisville,  Ky. 
Greenfield,  Ohio 
St.  Denis,  Md. 
New  York  City 
Muskogee,  Okla. 
Mobile,  Ala. 
Mobile,  Ala. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio 
Paris,  111. 
Baltimore,  Md. 
Jackson,  Miss. 
New  York  City 
New  Orleans,  La. 
Prairie   View,   Texas 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Shelbyville,  Tenn. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Chandler,  Okla. 
Chandler,  Okla. 
Bennettsville,  S.  C. 
Edwards,  Miss. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Guthrie,  Okla. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Muskogee,  Okla. 
Oklahoma   City,   Okla. 


black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto  *> 

mulatto 

mulatto  u 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulattoes 

mulatto 


mulatto 

mulatto 
mulatto 


10  One  authority  called  Page  a  full-blood  Negro. 
"One  authority  considered  Parrish  a  full-blood  Negro. 


304 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 


Isaac  H.  Smith 
R.  L.  Smith 
Wilford  H.  Smith 
C.  C.  Spaulding 
J.  B.  Stephenson 
J.  M.  Strauther 
C.   T.   Taliaferro 
H.  A.  Tandy 
Milliard  Taylor 
Preston  Taylor 
Holmes  Terrs 
Watt  Terry 
James  C.  Thomas 
J.  W.  Thomas 
E.  G.  Tidrington 
John   S.   Trower 
E.  D.  Tucker 
Mrs.   Pope   Turnbo 
M.  W.  Turner 
N.   T.   Velar 
W.  T.  Vernon 
Mrs.  C.  J.  Walker 

A.  G.  Wallace 
E.  E.  Ward 

B.  T.   Washington 
J.  W.  Washington 
John  L.  Webb 
John  W.  Wells 
Matthew    Welmon 
R.  W.  Westberry 

C.  P.  Williams 
G.  G.  Williams 
J.  A.  Williams 
J.  S.  Williams 

S.  Laing  Williams 
E.  D.  Willis 
T.  J.  Wilson 
T.  J.  Wilson,  Jr. 
B.  L.  Windham 
T.  C.  Windham 


New  Bern,  N.  C. 
Paris,  Texas 
New  York  City 
Durham,  S.  C. 
Olive  Branch,  Miss. 
Greenville,  Miss. 
Perry,  Okla. 
Lexington,  Ky. 
Boley,  Okla. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Holly  Springs,  Miss. 
Brockton,  Mass. 
New  York  City 
Bennettsville,  S.  C. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Germantown,  Pa. 
England,   Ark. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
E.   Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Okmulgee,  Okla. 
Columbus,  Ohio 
Tuskegee,  Ala. 
Marlin,  Texas 
Yazoo  City,  Miss. 
Chicago,  111. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Sumter,  S.  C. 
Chicago,  111. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Tampa,  Fla. 
Shreveport,  La. 
Chicago,  111. 
Lexington,  Ky. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
New  York  City 
Birmingham,   Ala. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 


black 
mulatto 
mulatto 
mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black13 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


black 

mulatto 

black 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 

mulatto 


"Probably. 

18  One  correspondent  called  Mrs.  Walker  full-blood. 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     305 

L.  Winter  Nashville,  Tenn.  mulatto 

S.  W.  Wood  Lonewa,  La.  mulatto 

John  M.  Wright  Topeka,  Kan.  mulatto 

John  T.  Writt  Pittsburg,  Pa.  mulatto 

Mrs.  M.  L.  Young  Edwards,  Miss.  mulatto 

The  list  contains  a  total  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-five 
separate  names.  Of  these,  eighteen  are  of  women  and  two 
hundred  and  seventeen  are  of  men.  The  eighteen  women 
seem  in  every  case  to  be  mulattoes.  Of  the  men,  seventeen 
seem  to  be  of  pure  blood,  while  in  sixteen  cases  the  facts 
were  not  discovered.  In  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  cases, 
the  men  are  known  to  be  mulattoes.  Of  the  total  two  hun 
dred  and  thirty-five,  sixteen  are  not  known,  seventeen  are 
black,  and  two  hundred  and  two  are  mulattoes.  The  ratio 
of  mulattoes  to  full-blooded  Negroes  stand  approximately 
at  twelve  to  one. 

From  all  other  sources,  an  additional  compilation  was 
made  of  successful  business  men.  This  list  was  independent 
of  particular  business  connections.  It  contained  real  estate 
men,  undertakers,  farmers,  merchants,  and  men  in  dozens  of 
other  lines  of  business.  The  criterion  for  selection  was  the 
known  or  alleged  special  success  in  an  economic  way.  The 
list  secured  on  this  basis  represents,  naturally,  a  much  more 
mixed  group  than  either  of  the  preceding.  It  includes,  on 
the  one  hand,  some  of  the  most  wealthy  and  highly  success 
ful  Negroes  in  the  country  and,  on  the  other,  a  goodly  num 
ber  whose  success  is  only  nominal.  It  is,  however,  believed 
to  be  a  representative  list  of  successful  American  Negro 
business  men. 

This  compilation  contained  a  total  of  three  hundred  and 
eighty-nine  names.  Twenty-eight  of  these  were  names  of 
women  and  three  hundred  and  sixty-one  were  names  of  men. 
The  women  were  in  every  case  mulattoes.  Three  hundred 


306  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

and  six  of  the  men  were  beyond  question  of  mixed  blood. 
Fifty-five  were  either  full-blooded  Negroes  or  very  dark  mu- 
lattoes.  Of  the  total  three  hundred  and  eighty-nine,  fifty-five 
were  classed  as  full-blooded  Negroes  and  three  hundred  and 
thirty-four  as  Negroes  of  mixed  blood.  The  ratio  of  mu- 
lattoes  to  full-blooded  Negroes  stood,  in  this  compilation, 
in  the  approximate  ratio  of  six  to  one. 

The  analyses  of  the  compilations  of  men  and  women  suc 
cessful  in  business  and  industry  show,  in  each  case,  similar 
results,  though  with  considerable  variation  between  the  dif 
ferent  lists.  Washington's  Negro  in  Business  contains  the 
names  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  persons  whose  racial 
ancestry  in  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  cases  was  determined. 
Twelve  of  these  were  classed  as  black  and  one  hundred  and 
forty-six  were  classed  as  mulattoes — a  ratio  of  slightly  over 
twelve  to  one.  The  thirty-nine  bank  presidents  were  in  four 
cases  classed  as  black  and  in  thirty-five  cases  as  mulattoes— 
a  ratio  of  nearly  nine  to  one.  The  two  hundred  and  nine 
teen  of  the  total  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  officers  and 
life-members  of  the  National  Negro  Business  League  were 
found  to  be  in  seventeen  cases  black  and  in  two  hundred  and 
two  cases  individuals  of  mixed  blood — a  ratio  of  approxi 
mately  twelve  to  one.  The  list  compiled  from  the  miscel 
laneous  sources  contained  the  names  of  three  hundred  and 
eighty-nine  persons,  fifty-five  of  whom  were  found  to  be 
black  and  three  hundred  and  thirty-four  to  be  of  mixed 
blood.  This  gives  a  ratio  of  slightly  over  six  to  one.  The 
total  number  of  names  in  the  four  compilations  is  eight  hun 
dred  and  twelve.  Eighty-seven  are  classed  as  black  and 
seven  hundred  and  twenty-five  as  mulattoes,  giving  a  ratio 
of  something  over  eight  to  one. 

The   first   three   of   these  lists   contain   names   elsewhere 
mentioned  and  in  a  few  cases  the  same  name  is  mentioned 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     307 

in  more  than  one  of  the  compilations.  By  removing  all  du 
plicates  and  all  names  of  men  who  have  been  mentioned 
in  other  connections,  the  number  of  names  is  considerably 
reduced  though  the  ratios  found  to  obtain  between  the  mu- 
lattoes  and  full-bloods  is  not  materially  altered.  The  ninety- 
eight  names  in  Washington's  Negro  in  Business  not  elsewhere 
mentioned  are  in  seven  cases  names  of  black  men  and  in 
ninety-one  cases  the  names  of  mulattoes — a  ratio  of  nearly 
thirteen  to  one.  The  twenty-two  bank  presidents  not  else 
where  mentioned  are  four  black  and  eighteen  mixed-bloods 
— a  ratio  of  four  and  one-half  to  one.  The  one  hundred 
and  twenty-four  names  appearing  exclusively  in  the  list  of 
life  members  of  the  National  Negro  Business  League  are  in 
eight  cases  of  black  men  and  in  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
cases  names  of  mulattoes — a  ratio  of  fourteen  and  one-half 
to  one.  The  list  compiled  from  the  miscellaneous  sources 
contains  no  names  elsewhere  mentioned.  In  the  four  lists, 
there  is  a  total  of  six  hundred  and  thirty-three  names  not 
found  in  any  other  compilation.  Seventy-four  of  these  are 
of  men  who  are  classed  as  Negro,  and  five  hundred  and  fifty- 
nine  are  classed  as  mixed-bloods.  This  is  a  ratio  of  some 
what  under  eight  to  one.  It  is  thus  seen  that  by  removing 
from  the  lists  the  names  of  men  of  sufficient  importance  to 
be  mentioned  in  more  than  one  connection  we  have  reduced 
slightly  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  pure  blood. 
A  tabulation  of  the  names  appearing  exclusively  in  these 
four  lists  follows: 

MEN  WOMEN  TOTALS 

Black  Mul.  Total  Black  Mul.  Total   Black  Mul.  Totals 

Negro  in  Business       6        70  76  1       21       22  7        91        98 

Banks                              4         18  22  0        0         0  4         18         22 

N.  N.  B.  League    8   101  109  0   15   15  8   116   124 

Miscellaneous      55   306  361  0   28   28  55   334   389 

Totals          73  ~495  "568  T   64   65  74  ~559  ~633 


308  The  Mulatto  in  ilie  United  States 

There  still  remain  a  number  of  influential  and  important 
men  and  women  of  the  Negro  race  who  do  not  fall  natu 
rally  into  any  of  the  preceding  groups.  There  are  individ 
uals  whose  influence  among  their  own  people  is  shown  by  the 
positions  to  which  they  have  been  advanced  in  the  various 
lodges  and  other  strictly  racial  organizations.  There  are 
a  considerable  number  of  individuals  who  have  gained  some 
notoriety  and  exercise  some  influence  on  the  thinking  and 
acting  of  the  members  of  the  race  through  professional  agi 
tation.  Other  important  and  leading  persons  are  engaged 
in  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  and  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  work  and  various  other  sorts  of  up 
lift  work  among  the  Negroes.  There  are  prominent  club 
women,  church  and  social  workers,  professional  and  scientific 
men,  newspaper  men  other  than  editors,  farm  demonstration 
agents,  and  various  other  successful  and  influential  men  and 
women  who  have  not  been  heretofore  mentioned. 

These  individuals  were  brought  together  in  a  final  com 
pilation  of  a  more  or  less  miscellaneous  nature.  The  total 
number  of  names  in  this  list  was  six  hundred  and  thirty-five. 
Analysis  of  this  list  showed  the  names  of  five  hundred  men 
and  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  women.  Sixty-four  of  the 
men  and  five  of  the  women  were  classed  as  black;  though, 
here  as  elsewhere,  this  category  contained  the  names  of  men 
who  are  by  no  means  pure-blood  Negroes.  Four  hundred 
and  thirty-six  of  the  men  and  one  hundred  and  thirty  of 
the  women  who  were  obviously  and  unmistakably  of  mixed- 
blood  origin  were  classed  as  mulattoes.  The  classification 
of  the  six  hundred  and  thirty-five  names  thus  showed  sixty- 
nine  to  be  names  of  Negroes  and  five  hundred  and  sixty-six 
to  be  names  of  mulattoes.  This  is  a  ratio  of  something 
over  eight  to  one. 

A  combination  of  this  list  of  names  with  the  lists  of  busi- 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     309 

ness  men  previously  tabulated,  gives  a  total  of  1268  names 
of  men  and  women  considered  in  this  chapter  and  not  else 
where  included.  Of  these,  1068  are  names  of  men  and  200 
are  names  of  women.  The  men  classify  as  167  black  and 
931  mulatto;  the  women,  as  6  black  and  194  mulatto.  The 
total  1268  divide  into  143  black  and  1125  mulattoes — a 
ratio  of  nearly  eight  to  one.  Throwing  the  data  into  tabular 
form  we  have  the  following: 

MEN  WOMEN  TOTALS 

Black  Mul.  Total  Black  Mul.     Total  Black    Mul.    Totals 

Businessmen        73      495  568  1         64         65           74         559         633 

Not  classified       64      436  500  5       130       135          69        566        635 


Totals  137       931       1068         6       194       200         143       1125       1268 

The  inquiry  into  the  relative  status  of  the  mulattoes  and 
the  full-blooded  Negroes  in  the  United  States  has  taken  into 
consideration  a  total  of  4267  men  and  women.  Summaries 
showing  the  sex  of  the  persons  considered,  as  well  as  their 
distribution  into  mulattoes  and  Negroes  of  full-blood,  have 
been  given  in  connection  with  the  various  compilations. 
Recapitulations  of  these  summaries  have  been  given  at  the 
close  of  the  chapters.  Bringing  together  in  a  single  table 
the  partial  findings  separately  arrived  at,  we  have  the  fol 
lowing  : 

MEN  WOMEN  TOTALS 

Black  Mul.  Total  Black  Mul.  Total  Black  Mul.  Totals 
Chapter  VIII  14  205  219  2  22  24  16  227  243 
Chapter  IX  57  465  522  7  98  105  64  563  627 
Chapter  X  206  1638  1844  18  267  285  224  1905  2129 
Chapter  XI  137  931  1068  6  194  200  143  1125  1268 

Totals  414      3239       3653      33       581       614      447      3820      4267 

We  are  now  in  possession  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  de 
tailed  and  verified  data  to  express  something  more  than  mere 


310  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

opinion  concerning  the  relative  success  of  the  Negro  of  pure 
and  the  Negro  of  mixed  blood.  The  list  of  4267  Negroes 
before  us  includes  every  member  of  the  race  who  has  made 
any  marked  success  in  life;  it  includes  every  member  of  the 
race  mentioned  in  the  histories  as  an  individual  of  import 
ance ;  it  includes  the  men  who  are,  in  the  opinion  of  some 
thirty-odd  of  the  best  informed  Negroes  in  the  country,  the 
foremost  living  members  of  the  race ;  it  includes  the  names 
of  those  men  and  women  who  are,  or  have  been,  considered 
of  enough  importance  to  have  received  mention  in  the 
biographical  and  intimately  personal  accounts  with  which 
the  literature  of  the  Negroes  abounds ;  it  includes  the  names 
of  those  men  who  have  attained  any  high  civil  or  political 
position,  or  have  made  any  particular  reputation,  either 
national  or  local,  either  within  or  without  the  race,  in  any 
professional  or  artistic  pursuit ;  it  includes  the  men  who 
have  made  any  particular  success  in  business  or  industral 
lines ;  it  includes,  in  short,  as  nearly  complete  and  exhaus 
tive  a  compilation  as  could  be  made  of  that  relatively  small 
group  of  Negroes  who  have  risen  superior  to  their  fellows. 
It  is  believed  that  no  Negro  of  first-class  importance  has 
failed  to  be  included  in  some  one  of  the  various  lists  or  sum 
maries.  It  is  believed  that  in  very  few  cases  individuals  have 
been  included  whose  accomplishments  do  not  entitle  them  to 
some  special  mention  when  the  criterion  is,  as  here,  unusual 
success  within  the  Negro  group.  But  granting  that  there  may 
have  been  some  few  individuals  omitted  who  should  have  been 
included  and  some  few  individuals  included  who  should 
have  been  excluded — granting,  that  is,  a  reasonable  margin 
of  error — the  list  here  brought  together  and  analyzed  con 
tains  the  names  of  the  members  of  the  race  who  because  of 
education,  opportunity,  special  talent,  superior  native  abil 
ity,  exceptional  industry  or  for  other  reason  have  made  a 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     311 

noteworthy  success  in  business,  professional,  artistic,  or 
other  lines  of  human  endeavor  and  so  have  become  the  excep 
tional  and  the  important  men  of  the  race.  The  list  is  com 
posed  of  that  group  of  men  and  women  who  compose  the 
intellectual,  social,  and  economic  aristocracy  of  the  Negro 
world. 

In  the  analysis  of  this  group  of  exceptional  Negroes, 
effort  was  made  to  follow  the  same  line  of  demarcation 
adopted  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Federal  Census.  In  the  group 
of  full-blooded  Negroes,  were  placed  those  who  so  consider 
themselves  or  are  so  considered  by  other  Negroes  who  know 
them,  as  well  as  those  individuals  of  undoubtedly  pure  Ne 
gro  ancestry.  In  the  group  of  mulattoes,  were  placed  those 
individuals  who  claim  to  be  mulattoes  or  who  so  pass  in  the 
communities  in  which  they  live,  as  well  as  those  whose  color 
and  features  show  clearly  and  unmistakably  that  they  are 
of  a  mixed  racial  origin.  No  individuals  were  placed  in  the 
mulatto  group  where  the  evidence  of  mixed  ancestry  did  not 
appear  to  be  conclusive.  Many  questionable  and  border-line 
cases  were  placed  with  and  counted  as  Negroes  of  full  blood. 
Consequently,  in  the  full-blooded  group,  there  are  doubtless 
many  individuals  of  mixed  blood;  probably  a  goodly  per 
centage  of  them  are  in  some  degree  of  mixed  ancestry ;  pos 
sibly  there  are  in  this  so-called  full-blooded  group  more 
individuals  of  mixed  than  of  pure  blood.  A  stricter  defini 
tion  of  the  terms  -full-blooded  and  mixed-blood  would 
decrease  the  number  classed  as  full-blooded  and  increase  the 
mixed-blood  group  by  an  equal  number.  But  in  almost  every 
case,  the  persons  placed  in  the  full-blooded  group  are  dark- 
skinned  individuals,  of  say  three-fourths  or  more  Negro 
blood,  who  consider  themselves  and  pass  among  their  fel 
lows  as  Negroes  of  pure  blood  and,  inasmuch  as  we  are  con 
cerned  with  social  conditions  rather  than  with  biological 


312  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

facts,  there  is  no  essential  fallacy  in  so  classing  them. 

Classified  on  this  basis  of  distinction,  447  names  fall  into 
the  full-blooded  group  and  3820  names  fall  into  the  group 
of  mulattoes.  The  614  women  included  in  the  total  are  in 
33  cases  classed  as  Negroes  of  full  blood  and  in  581  cases 
as  mulattoes.  The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  black  women  thus 
stands  at  seventeen  and  six-tenths  to  one.  The  3653  men 
are  in  414  cases  classed  as  Negroes  of  full  blood  and  in 
3239  cases  as  mulattoes.  The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  black 
men  thus  stands  at  seven  and  eight-tenths  to  one. 

The  higher  percentage  of  mulattoes  among  the  list  of 
women  than  among  the  list  of  men  is  due  on  the  one  hand 
to  its  being  a  smaller  group  and  so  representing  a  higher 
average  of  ability  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  women  owe  their  prominence  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  the  wives  of  Negroes  of  importance.  To  the  ex 
tent  that  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  preponderance  of  mu 
latto  women  is  indicative  of  the  tendency  of  marriage  selec 
tion  among  the  Negro  males  rather  than  of  intellectual  su 
periority  among  mulatto  females.  They  are  selected  by  the 
men  because  of  their  relative  absence  of  color  and  owe  their 
prominence  to  the  fact  of  that  selection. 

In  many  of  the  lists,  a  very  much  higher  ratio  than  eight 
and  one-half  to  one  was  found  to  prevail.  In  a  few  large 
lists,  generally  of  a  miscellaneous  sort,  the  ratio  was  some 
what  lower.  The  rise  above,  or  the  fall  below,  this  ratio  of 
eight  and  one-half  to  one,  it  will  have  been  noticed,  depended 
in  every  compilation  of  any  size  upon  the  degree  of  im 
portance  and  real  distinction  of  the  men  whose  names  com 
posed  the  list.  The  ratio  of  blacks  to  mulattoes,  for  ex 
ample,  in  the  compilation  of  doctors  and  dentists  was  ap 
proximately  fifteen  to  one ;  while  in  the  compilation  of 
preachers,  the  ratio  was  approximately  five  to  one.  In  the 


Negro  and  Mulatto  in  Business  and  Industry     313 

one  case,  membership  in  the  profession  implies  at  least  a 
minimum  of  training  and  native  ability;  in  the  other  case, 
membership  in  the  profession  implies  the  minimum  of  train 
ing  and  ability.  The  ratio  of  eight  and  one-half  to  one  is 
thus  the  ratio  prevailing  between  the  mulattoes  and  blacks 
in  a  list  of  about  four  thousand  of  the  most  prominent 
individuals  of  the  race.  If  the  list  be  reduced  in  size 
by  the  elimination  from  it  of  the  less  important  persons,  the 
ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  pure  blood  would  be  cor 
respondingly  raised.  By  lowering  the  standard  so  as  to  in 
clude  a  yet  larger  number  of  persons  in  the  compilation, 
the  relative  number  of  mulattoes  to  full-blooded  Negroes 
would  be  correspondingly  decreased.  The  ratio  of  eight 
and  one-half  to  one,  therefore,  is  the  ratio  prevailing  when 
a  standard  is  used,  which  draws  the  line  between  the  mass 
of  the  race  and  the  four  thousand  who  are  the  race's  fore 
most  men. 

The  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes  of  full  blood  among 
the  four  thousand  leaders  of  the  race  is  eight  and  one-half  to 
one.  The  ratio  of  blacks  to  mulattoes  in  the  general  Negro 
population,  on  the  basis  of  the  same  definition  of  the  terms, 
is  approximately  four  to  one.  If  the  standard  be  raised 
so  as  to  exclude  the  individuals  of  the  lower  degrees  of  abil 
ity  and  success,  the  proportion  of  mulattoes  to  Negroes 
of  full  blood  will  very  greatly  exceed  the  ratio  of  thirty-four 
to  one.  If  the  definition  of  full-blooded  Negro  be  made  to 
exclude  those  mixed-blood  individuals  of  brown  skin  who 
pass  as  full-blooded  Negroes,  there  will  be  a  further  increase, 
perhaps  about  a  doubling,  in  the  ratio  of  mulattoes  to  full- 
blooded  Negroes  among  the  leading  men  of  the  race.  Stated 
in  another  way,  the  relative  chances  of  a  black  child  and  a 
mulatto  child,  chosen  at  random  from  the  members  of  the 
race,  attaining  to  a  position  among  the  elite  of  the  race 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

are  from  thirty-four  to  fifty,  or  perhaps  a  hundred  times 
as  great  in  the  case  of  the  child  of  mixed  blood.  The  rela 
tive  chances  of  the  mulatto  child  over  the  black  child  de 
pend  upon  the  standard  of  success  called  for  and  the  degree 
of  accuracy  with  which  the  terms  full-blooded  and  mixed- 
blood  are  defined.  On  the  basis  accepted  for  the  purposes 
of  this  study,  the  chances  of  the  mulatto  child  developing 
into  a  leader  of  the  race  are  thirty-four  times  as  great  as 
are  the  chances  of  a  black  child. 

We  have  arrived  then  at  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  asser 
tion  and  the  assumption  which  it  was  the  purpose  of  this 
section  to  investigate.  This  assumption  was  that  the  Negro 
people  in  America  have  produced  as  many  superior  indi 
viduals  of  pure  Negro  blood  as  superior  individuals  of  mixed 
blood.14  The  investigation  has  shown  that  the  assertion 
is  unsupported  by  the  slightest  basis  of  fact.  Not  even  by 
accepting  the  loosest  possible  definition  of  terms,  can  it 
be  made  to  appear  that  the  full-blooded  group  even  ap 
proaches  within  a  measurable  distance  of  the  mixed-blood 
group  in  the  production  of  men  even  slightly  superior  to 
the  racial  average.  The  full-blooded  Negro  group  has  not 
produced  as  many  superior  men  as  has  the  mulatto  group. 
According  to  the  strictness  or  the  looseness  of  the  definition 
of  full-blooded  Negro  that  is  used,  and  the  high  or  low  de 
gree  of  superiority  that  is  accepted  as  the  test,  the  twenty 
per  cent  of  mixed-bloods  among  the  American  Negroes  have 
produced  eighty-five  per  cent  or  upwards  of  the  race's  su 
perior  men. 

"See  p.  186  above. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   ROLE   OF   THE   MULATTO   IN   THE   INTER-RACIAL   SITUATION 

THE  role  that  a  mixed-blood  race  plays  in  an  inter 
racial  situation  in  which  it  is  placed  is  dependent  for 
the  most  part  on  facts  and  forces  outside  the  race  itself 
and  over  which  its  members  are  able  to  exercise  little  or  no 
control.  Their  ambition  is  much  the  same  everywhere ;  their 
opportunity  to  realize  their  ambition  varies  with  different 
social  situations.  The  part  they  play  in  a  social  situation 
is  dependent  upon  the  attitude  of  the  dominant  group  which, 
in  turn,  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  exigencies  of  the 
general  social  situation. 

The  desire  of  the  mixed-blood  man  is  always  and  every 
where  to  be  a  white  man ;  to  be  classed  with  and  become  a 
part  of  the  superior  race.  The  ideal — the  center  of  gravity 
— of  the  hybrid  group  is  outside  itself.  The  ideal  of  beauty, 
of  success,  of  all  that  is  good  and  desirable  is  typified  by  the 
superior  race.  The  ambition  of  the  man  of  mixed-blood  is 
to  be  identified  with  the  superior  group ;  to  share  its  life, 
its  work,  and  its  civilization.  Certain  mixed-blood  groups, 
as  groups,  have  been  able  partly  to  realize  this  ambition. 
In  individual  and  exceptional  cases,  persons  of  mixed-blood 
are  able  in  most  urban  communities  to  escape  from  their 
group  and  pass  as  members  of  the  advanced  race.  Every 
where,  were  it  possible,  the  mixed-blood  group  would  break 
with  their  darker  relatives,  hide  their  relationship  to  them, 
and,  through  marital  relations,  obliterate  from  their  off- 

315 


316  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

spring  the  physical  characteristics  which  mark  them  as 
members  of  a  backward  and  despised  race.  Where  this  may 
not  be,  where  an  intolerable  racial  consciousness  on  the  part 
of  the  superior  race  assigns  individuals  of  all  degrees  of 
intermixture  and  of  all  stages  of  cultural  advancement  to 
the  status  of  the  backward  race,  the  individuals  of  mixed 
ancestry  tend  to  form  a  separate  caste  and  to  approach 
as  near  as  may  be  to  an  equality  with  the  superior  group. 

There  would  seem  to  be  no  exception  to  this  among  groups 
of  mixed-bloods  anywhere.  The  Eurasians  despise  the 
Indian,  separate  themselves  from  him  and  endeavor  to  ap 
proach,  in  habits,  customs,  and  manner  of  life,  the  dominant 
British  group.1  They  bitterly  resent  a  special  racial  desig 
nation  which  sets  them  off  from  the  English  ;  they  claim  to 
be  "European"  and  demand  that  they  be  so  classed  and 
recognized.2  Among  the  Eskimos  of  the  Greenland  West 
Coast,  the  native's  social  standing  is  fixed  according  to  his 
degree  of  approximation  to  the  characteristic  features  of  his 
Danish  superiors.3  The  lighter  the  individual's  color,  the 
more  eligible  he  is  as  a  matrimonial  possibility.  The  upper 
strata  of  Jamaica's  "coloured"  population  separate  them 
selves  from  the  other  mulattoes,  call  themselves  "white,"  ad 
vocate  intermarriage  and,  opportunity  presenting,  prac 
tice  it.4  The  metis  of  Brazil  draw  a  more  or  less  rigid  social 


Helen  Lee,  The  Eurasian:  A  Social  Problem,  pp.  12-13. 
3J.  Smith,  Ten  Years  in  Burma,  p.  117.     Lee,  The  Eurasian,  p.  14. 

3  See  p.  32  f.  above. 

4  Davenport    shows    that    among    the    hybrid    population    of    Jamaica 
and  Bermuda  there  is  a  marriage  selection  against  the  dark  males.    They 
have  less  opportunity  to  become  husbands  of  light-colored  women  than 
do  light-colored  males  and  hence  they  have  a  smaller  chance  of  becom 
ing  fathers.     This  selection,  he  thinks,  must  have  a  real  effect,  in  suc 
cessive   generations,   in   causing  the  hybrids   to  become   lighter.     C.   B. 
Davenport,  Heredity  of  Skin  Color,  pp.  27  ff.    See,  also,  William  Thorp, 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         317 

color  line  against  the  more  highly  colored  groups  and  en 
deavor  to  form  such  matrimonial  unions  as  will,  they  hope, 
bring  their  offspring  yet  closer  to  the  white  type.5  The 
Spanish  half-breeds  everywhere  show  a  similar  tendency. 
"Every  one  wishes  to  be  reckoned  as  a  white  man."  The 
mixed-breed  Indians  in  the  United  States  tend  to  intermarry 
among  themselves  and  not  with  the  full-bloods.7  In  the 
United  States  almost  every  Negro  of  prominence  from  Fred 
erick  Douglass  to  Jack  Johnson  has  married  a  white  woman 
or  a  light-colored  mulatto.8 

There  is  no  intention  here  to  criticize  the  mulattoes  or 

"How  Jamaica  Solves  the  Negro  Problem,"  World's  Work,  Vol.  8,  p. 
4912;  and  Charles  K.  Needham,  "A  Comparison  of  Some  Conditions 
in  Jamaica  with  those  in  the  United  States,"  Journal  of  Race  Devel 
opment,  Vol.  4,  pp.  189-203. 

6  Jean  Baptiste  de  Lacerda,  "The  Metis  or  Half  Breeds  of  Brazil," 
Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  382. 

•James  Bryce,  South  America,  p.  460.  E.  A.  Ross,  South  of  Pan 
ama,  p.  168. 

7  About  four-fifths  of  the  88,030  persons  of  mixed  Indian  and  white 
blood  are  one-half  or  more  than  one-half  white.     Indian  Population  in 
the    United  States   and  Alaska,    United    States    Census,    1910,    Supple 
ment  1915,  p.  35. 

8".  .  .  Whereas  we  do  not  put  our  individual  stamp  of  approval  on 
Johnson  marrying  a  white  woman  .  .  .  but  we  still  point  to  the  many 
notable  cases  of  black  men  who  have  married  white  women  and  the 
multitude  of  prominent  colored  individuals  who  barely  miss  committing 
the  heinous  crime  by  invariably  marrying  the  near-white  women  of 
their  race.  What  is  so  commonly  practiced  by  the  higher  ups  in  every 
community  should  not  be  so  highly  censurable  in  Mr.  Johnson's  action 
simply  because  his  matrimonial  fitness  largely  looms  up  to  the  colored 
woman  from  a  standpoint  of  financial  healthiness  of  purse."  C.  A. 
Stokes,  Kansas  City  Sun,  a  Negro  paper,  4-3-1915.  See,  also,  W.  H. 
Thomas,  The  American  Negro,  p.  408;  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and 
White  in  the  Southern  States,  p.  33;  R.  W.  Shufeldt,  The  Negro:  A 
Menace  to  American  Civilization,  p.  196;  Ray  Stannard  Baker,  "The 
Tragedy  of  the  Mulatto,"  American  Magazine,  Vol.  65,  pp.  582-98; 
Bert  Williams  as  quoted  in  the  Chicago  Defender,  12-26-1914. 


318  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

other  men  of  mixed  blood ;  quite  the  contrary.  To  recognize 
their  desire  to  be  white,  their  ambition  to  associate  them 
selves  through  marriage  or  otherwise  with  the  white  race, 
is  but  to  recognize  their  ability  to  appreciate  the  superior 
culture  of  the  white  group.9  An  opposite  tendency  on 
their  part  would  go  far  towards  establishing  the  thesis  of 
the  congenital  inability  of  the  lower  group  to  assimilate 
white  civilization.  It  would  show  a  deliberate  preference 
on  their  part  for  the  inferior  in  the  presence  of  the  supe 
rior. 

In  contrast  to  the  social  ambition  of  the  mixed-blood 
group,  racial  antipathy  on  the  part  of  the  dominant  group 
is  everywhere  present.10  Actual  social  equality  between 
divergent  racial  groups  in  a  population  is  found  nowhere. 
Whether  it  be  right  or  wrong,  natural  or  artificial,  this  caste 
feeling  exists  and  is  always  a  factor  in  the  racial  situation. 
The  way  in  which  it  manifests  itself,  varies  with  the  people 
in  contact  and  the  conditions  of  their  association.  It  may 
find  its  expression  in  a  good-natured  tolerance  of  the  short 
comings  of  an  inferior  group;  it  may  show  itself  as  con 
tempt  for  a  weak  and  backward  race ;  it  may  show  itself  as 
disgust  at  the  strange  manners  and  customs  of  a  degraded 
people;  it  may  be  expressed  as  an  intense  and  bitter  hatred 
for  the  opposite  race;  it  may  take  any  one  of  a  great  num 
ber  of  forms;  but  it  is  nowhere  wholly  absent.  In  general, 
the  wider  the  difference  in  physical  and  cultural  traits 
between  the  two  races  in  contact,  the  more  intense  and 

•"The  fact  that  it  is  always  the  lighter  race  that  puts  the  taboo  on 
the  colored,  and  that  the  latter  is  everywhere  eager  to  mix  with  the 
whites,  is  only  an  evidence  of  the  general  trend  of  choice  towards  the 
higher  efficiency  of  the  white  race."  U.  G.  Weatherly,  "A  World-Wide 
Color  Line,"  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol.  79,  pp.  474-86. 

10  B.  L.  Putnam  Weale,  "The  Conflict  of  Color,"  World's  Work,  Vol. 
19,  pp.  12327-29. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         319 

bitter  is  the  antipathetic  feeling  between  them.11  It  is  more 
intense  between  the  North  Europeans  and  the  blacks  than 
between  any  other  two  races.  It  is  usually,  though  not 
always,  less  marked  between  the  Mediterranean  races  and 
the  primitive  peoples  of  America  than  between  any  other 
culture  and  nature  peoples  who  have  come  into  contact  with 
each  other.12  The  number  of  members  of  the  lower  race 
in  the  social  situation  is  also  a  factor  conditioning  the  feel 
ing  that  their  presence  arouses.  A  few  individuals  of  a 
divergent  type  may  excite  interest  and  curiosity;  they  may 
even  enjoy  a  prestige  simply  by  virtue  of  their  unlikeness. 
But  if  present  in  greater  numbers  and  especially  if  their 
presence  is  felt  to  constitute  a  menace  to  the  superior  cul 
ture,  the  feeling  against  them  may  rise  to  a  pitch  of  fanat 
ical  barbarism.  Political  conditions  may  be  such  as  to 
compel  the  disavowal  of  this  race  prejudice,  business  rea 
sons  may  counsel  its  concealment,  individual  isolation  from 
racial  contact  may  even  prevent  its  rising  above  the  thresh 
old  of  consciousness ;  but  consciously  or  subconsciously  it  is 
an  ever-present  and  active  force  wherever  two  races  are  in 
contact. 

It  is  the  desire  for  social  equality  on  the  part  of  the 
nixed-blood  group  in  conflict  with  the  caste  feeling  of  su 
periority  on  the  part  of  the  dominant  group  which  fur- 
lishes  the  key  to  an  understanding  of  the  place  that  the 


nixed-blood  man  occupies   and  the  role  which  he  plays  in 


different    racial    situations.      These   are   the    factors   which 
are  always  present  and  operating  wherever  a  mixed-blood 

"James  Bryce,  The  Relation  of  Advanced  and  Backward  Races,  pp. 
18-19. 

"However,  the  Castilian  Spaniards  in  Spanish  America  gave  an  ex 
hibition  of  caste  feeling  and  of  contempt  for  inferior  peoples  perhaps 
nowhere  else  equaled  in  colonial  history. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

whom  they  readily  intermixed  and  into  whose  ranks  they 
tended  to  disappear.20 

At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  and  the  establishment  of 
Brazilian  independence,  the  mixed-blood  group  was  suffi 
ciently  numerous  and  powerful  to  compel  a  recognition 
of  social  equality  21  and  secure  an  equal  place  in  the  affairs 
of  the  government.22  Consequently,  the  mixed-bloods  came 
into  closer  contact  with  the  culture  group,  while  the  gap 
between  the  mixed-bloods  and  the  Negro-Indian  group  wid 
ened.23  At  the  present  time,  the  metis  are  sloughing  off 
more  and  more  the  customs  and  habits  of  the  colored  races 
and  conforming  more  closely  to  the  manners  of  life  of  the 
white  group.  By  marriage  selection,  they  endeavor  to 
make  their  children  more  like  the  Portuguese  and  less  like 
the  members  of  the  lower  groups.  Economic  and  profes 
sional  success,  or  the  achievement  of  political  position  ad 
mits  them  to  the  lighter  grades  of  Brazilian  society.  Pov 
erty,  atavism,  or  failure  may  throw  individual  members  into 

what  arrogant  person,  works  only  when  he  feels  inclined."  Koebel, 
The  South  Americans,  pp.  92-93. 

".  .  .  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  negro  blood  among  the  work 
ing  classes  and  the  luxurious  vegetation  by  means  of  which  life  can 
be  at  least  supported  with  a  minimum  of  effort,  the  people  are  inclined 
to  be  indolent.  .  .  ."  The  South  American  Year  Book,  1915,  p.  216. 

^Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  381.  Johnston,  The  Negro  in 
the  New  World,  p.  100  f.  n. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  conditions  differ  very  radically  in 
North  and  South  Brazil.  The  great  bulk  of  the  Negro  population  is 
in  the  tropical  regions  of  the  North.  Between  the  North  and  South 
Brazil  "There  is  very  little  in  common  save  the  language."  Koebel, 
The  South  Americans,  p.  9.  "So  mixed  is  the  blood  of  the  lower  classes 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  tell  who  or  what  many  people  are,  .  .  ." 
South  American  Year  Book,  p.  216. 

"All  races  and  classes  are  recognized  by  the  constitution  as  equal. 

"Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  381. 

MIbid.,  p.   382. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         323 

the  lower  groups  between  which  and  the  mixed-blood  group 
there  is  coming  to  exist  the  same  impassable  barrier  which 
in  the  United  States,  Jamaica,  and  South  Africa  exists 
between  the  whites  and  the  mulattoes. 

Of  course  in  general  mode  of  life,  social  customs,  etc., 
the  educated  coloured  people  of  Brazil  are  scarcely  dis 
tinguishable  from  the  Portuguese  middle  or  upper 
classes,  according  to  their  means  and  social  status.  The 
peasants,  however,  away  from  the  towns  lead  a  more 
African  existence,  and  except  that  the  house  or  hut 
may  be  a  little  superior  to  the  average  negro  home  in 
Africa,  manners  and  customs  in  domesticity  are  little 
changed  from  the  standard  of  the  Gold  Coast  or  Da 
homey — not  a  very  low  standard,  by  the  by.24 

The  mixed-bloods  are,  therefore,  for  all  essential  pur 
poses,  a  part  of  the  advanced  group,  and  tend  to  become 
more  and  more  so.  They  have  considerable  influence  in  the 
governmental  affairs  of  the  country.  All  offices  and  honors 
are  open  to  them.  In  the  solution  of  the  racial  problem, 
so  far  as  the  above  is  true,  they  simply  have  no  part.  They 
have  left  the  race,  escaped  from  it,  and  by  every  means  in 
their  power  endeavor  to  conceal  and  obliterate  their  for 
mer  connection  with  and  relationship  to  the  primitive 
group.25 

"Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  105. 

25  The  idea  that  the  Brazilian  Negro  is  being  absorbed  into  the  white 
race  and  transformed  into  a  white  man  without  essentially  changing 
the  physical  type  of  the  population  is  hardly  to  be  taken  seriously. 
It  represents  a  "hope  and  the  belief  rather  than  a  rational  judgment. 
Mr.  Roosevelt  says  that  the  men  and  women  "with  whom  I  closely 
associated  were  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  pure  white,  save  in  the 
comparatively  rare  instances  where  they  had  a  dash  of  Indian  blood"; 
that  the  men  and  women  of  high  social  position  are  as  unmixed  as  the 
corresponding  classes  in  Paris  or  Rome,  and  that  they  will  continue  to 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

.  .  .  He  is  now  a  "Homem  Brazileiro,"  and  the  word 
negro,  even  when  applied  to  one  of  pure  negro  race,  has 
come  to  be  used  only  as  a  term  of  abuse,  which  may 
be  made  still  further  offensive  by  supplementing  it 
with  the  words  "de  Africa."  This  has  come  to  be  one 
of  the  most  offensive  terms  one  can  apply  to  a  Brazil 
ian  citizen,  even  though  he  be  of  unmixed  negro  de 
scent.  If  you  must  discriminate  as  to  colour  in  con 
versation,  you  speak  of  a  "preto."  26 

Under  other  conditions,  the  bastard  race  may  be  the 
connecting  link  which  holds  together  the  divergent  racial  and 
cultural  elements  in  a  population.  This  seems  to  be  the 
role  of  the  mixed-blood  group  where  they  are  a  numerically 
important  part  of  the  population,  and  where  there  is  a 
relatively  weak  sense  of  nationality  on  the  part  of  the  white 
group.  Stated  in  other  words,  it  is  their  role  in  those  inter 
racial  situations  where  there  is  a  more  or  less  rapid  amal 
gamation  in  process  between  the  divergent  elements  of  the 

be  pure  white;  that  the  classes  immediately  below  have  absorbed  and 
will  continue  to  receive  a  small  amount  of  Negro  blood  while  in  "the 
ordinary  people"  the  absorption  of  Negro  blood  will  be  "large  enough 
to  make  a  slight  difference  in  the  type."  And  finally  he  quotes  a  Bra 
zilian  "statesman"  to  the  effect  that  the  Negro  is  disappearing  by 
absorption  into  the  white  race  and  "his  blood  will  remain  as  an  appre 
ciable,  but  in  no  way  a  dominant,  element  in  perhaps  a  third  of  our 
people,  while  the  remaining  two-thirds  will  be  pure  whites."  When  it 
is  remembered  that  an  eighth  and  frequently  a  sixteenth  or  even  less 
of  Negro  blood  in  a  Negro- White  cross  is  sufficient  to  "make  a  slight 
difference  in  the  type"  it  is  readily  seen  that,  even  if  there  should 
be  no  further  increase  in  Negro  blood,  the  population  of  the  country  will 
need  to  be  increased  by  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
million  white  persons  in  order  that  the  present  ten  million  Negroes  and 
mulattoes  may  be  absorbed  into  the  lower  third  of  the  population  with 
out  producing  more  than  a  slight  change  in  the  type.  The  utterances 
of  Mr.  Roosevelt  are  often  taken  seriously.  See  T.  R.  Roosevelt, 
"Brazil  and  the  Negro,"  Outlook,  Vol.  106,  pp.  409-11. 
"Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  100. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         386 

population.  It  is  the  part  played  by  the  mixed-blood  group 
in  Cuba,  in  many  parts  of  Spanish  America,  and  in  certain 
regions  of  Brazil. 

In  Cuba,  the  mulatto  occupies  much  the  position  of  a 
connecting  link  between  the  pure-bred  Spaniard  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  full-blood  Negro  on  the  other.  There  is  no 
sharp  break  between  the  whites  and  the  mulattoes,  nor  be 
tween  the  mulattoes  and  the  Negroes.  The  different  shades 
of  the  hybrid  group  serve  to  connect  the  opposing  cultural 
and  physical  types.  They  grade  almost  imperceptibly  into 
the  whites  above  them  and  into  the  blacks  below  them.  The 
color  line,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  phrase  is  understood 
in  the  United  States,  Jamaica,  and  South  Africa,  is  neither 
hard  nor  fast  2T  and  the  mulatto  is  free  to  associate  and  to 
intermarry  with  the  members  of  the  white  group.28  In  pro 
portion  to  his  success  in  life  and  his  approximation  to  the 
Spanish  cast  of  countenance,  he  is  able  to  get  himself 
accepted  into  the  less  exclusive  grades  of  white  or  near- 
white  society.29  All  this  does  not  imply  any  lack  of  preju 
dice  or  caste  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards.  Caste 
feeling  does  not  center  at  any  one  point;  it  is  diffused 
throughout  the  population.30  Color  is  a  badge  of  inferi- 

27  "Yet  the  Negro  is  losing  ground,  politically  and  socially,  and 
unless  he  is  content  with  his  present  status  of  farmer,  laborer,  petty 
tradesman,  minor  employee,  and  domestic  servant,  there  will  arise  a 
'colour  question'  here  as  in  the  United  States."  Johnston,  The  Negro 
in  the  New  World,  p.  60. 

38  The  one  thing  that  makes  the  relations  of  the  races  more  friendlly 
in  Cuba  than  in  the  United  States  is  that  there  their  desire  to  mix 
with  the  whites  is  granted.  R.  L.  Bullard,  "How  Cubans  Differ  from 
Us."  North  American  Review,  Vol.  186,  pp.  416-21.  Note  particularly 
p.  417. 

19  R.  L.  Bullard,  "The  Cuban  Negro,"  North  American  Review,  Vol. 
184,  p.  624. 

*°Ibid.f  p.  628. 


326  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ority.31  The  men  at  the  top  are  white ;  the  men  at  the 
bottom  are  black.32  Every  man  between  is  envious  of  the 
colors  lighter  than  himself  and  contemptuous  of  those  more 
highly  colored. 

The  racial  situation  on  the  mainland  is  not  markedly  dif 
ferent.  The  mixed-blood  race  stands,  industrially,  politi 
cally  and  socially,  between  the  white  on  the  one  hand  and 
native  on  the  other.  Except  where  Negro  blood  is  present, 
there  is  generally  no  sharp  breach  between  the  mixed-blood 
group  and  the  white  race  and  no  definite  breach  between 
the  mixed-blood  group  and  the  mother  race.  The  mixed- 
bloods  envy  the  white  and  endeavor  to  marry  into  the  white 
or  near-white  society.  In  proportion  to  the  difference  in 
their  social  status,  they  despise  the  Indian  and  the  Negro. 
The  mixed-blood  group,  however,  ranges  in  appearance 
from  the  near-white  to  the  near-Indian  type  and  so  forms 
a  physiological  tie  between  the  mixed- white  and  white  group 
and  the  Negro  and  Indian  group. 

In  general,  the  role  of  the  mixed-blood  individuals  in  Span 
ish  America  seems  to  be  that  of  a  connecting  link  between 
the  extremes  of  the  population.  It  is  their  part  to  mix 
with  the  whites  and  the  blacks  and  to  serve  as  a  tie  be 
tween  the  two.  Racial  amalgamation  goes  on  between  the 
whites  and  the  mixed-bloods,  and  between  the  mixed-bloods 
and  the  Natives.  The  hybrid  population  is  increased  by 
both  unions  as  well  as  by  mixture  among  themselves,  and 
the  population  approaches  more  and  more  to  that  of  an 
exclusively  hybrid  one.83 

31  Bullard,  North  American  Review,  Vol.  184,  p.  629. 

32  Many  of  the  Negroes   are   no   further   advanced  than   those  in   the 
Congo.     William    Inglis,   "The   Future   of  Cuba,"   the  North   American 
Review,  Vol.  183,  pp.   1037-40.     Note  especially  p.  1039. 

33  In    some   of   the   more    advanced    states    it   seems    already   to   have 
reached  this  stage.     Chile  has,  more  than  most  South  American  coun- 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Sittiation         327 

The  final  outcome  of  these  racial  arrangements  is  de 
pendent  simply  upon  the  relative  numbers  of  the  racial 
groups  in  the  population.  Where  the  hybrid  is  the  numer 
ically  dominant  group,  as  in  Mexico,34  it  represents  the 
probable  future  type 35  of  the  country's  population.36 
Where  the  white  group  is  the  more  numerous  and  especially 
where  it  is  being  constantly  reinforced  by  immigration,  as 
is  the  case  of  Southern  Brazil,  the  hybrid  group  tends  to 
approximate  more  and  more  the  white  type,37  and  a  single 
color  line  to  separate  the  mixed-white  group  from  the  mixed- 
Indian  and  black  groups.  Where  the  native  group  predom 
inates  and  where  there  is  no  appreciable  immigration  and 
no  effective  caste  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  mixed  or  su 
perior  groups  to  save  them  from  a  further  infusion  of  native 
blood,  the  population  is  gradually  reverting,  in  appearance 
and  civilization,  to  the  Indian  type.  The  racial  problem 
in  the  Spanish  American  countries  finds  its  expression  in 
periodical  revolutions  and  a  more  or  less  chronic  state  of 

tries,  been  able  to  draw  the  line  between  the  whites  and  the  various 
grades  of  pure-  and  mixed-blood  natives  below  them.  Keller,  Coloni 
zation,  p.  317.  Bryce  says  "there  are  no  longer  any  pure  Indians" 
and  that  most  of  the  aristocracy  have  remained  pure  white.  South 
America,  p.  232.  See,  also,  p.  478. 

84  Seventy-five  per  cent  mixed;  15  per  cent  Indian;  10  per  cent  Euro 
pean  descent. 

38  If  one  may  speak  of  a  "type"  in  a  hybrid  population. 

86  Sir  Charles  Bruce,  "The  Modern  Conscience  in  Relation  to  the 
Treatment  of  Dependent  Peoples  and  Communities,"  Inter-Racial  Prob 
lems,  pp.  291-92.  James  Bryce,  "Migration  of  the  Races  of  Men," 
Contemporary  Review,  Vol.  62,  p.  130.  J.  H.  Van  Evrie,  White  Su 
premacy  and  Negro  Subordination,  pp.  157-58.  Friedrich  Ratzel,  Hi-s 
tory  of  Mankind,  Vol.  2,  p.  27. 

""Lacerda,  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  378.  Luis  Cabera,  "The  Mexi 
can  Revolution — Its  Causes,  Purposes  and  Results,"  Annals  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Supplement,  Jan. 
1917,  pp.  4-5. 


328  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

guerilla  warfare. 

Where  there  exists  a  strong  sense  of  nationality  or  of 
racial  pride  on  the  part  of  each  of  the  two  parent  races 
in  the  situation,  the  mixed-blood  individuals  usually  are 
without  a  respected  position  in  the  society  of  either.  Each 
race  having  a  civilization  in  which  it  believes  and  which  it 
considers  the  superior  of  any  other,  there  is  no  natural 
place  for  the  half-castes  except  within  the  ranks  of  one  or 
the  other  of  the  parent  races.  There  is  no  middle  ground. 
If  they  are  rejected  by  both  races  or  refuse  to  cast  their 
lot  with  one  and  are  rejected  by  the  other,  they  are  simply 
outcasts.  They  may  form  or  be  formed  into  a  special  caste, 
but  it  is  a  caste  with  an  inferior  social  status  within  one 
or  the  other  of  the  parent  races,  and  not  a  class  intermediate 
between  the  parent  groups.  The  Eurasians  are  perhaps 
the  best  present-day  example  of  a  group  rejected  by  both 
the  races  of  which  their  ancestry  is  composed. 

In  the  Asiatic  situation,  the  colored  races  have  their  own 
civilization  to  which  they  hold  with  a  tenacity  at  least  equal 
to  that  which  the  white  man  shows  for  his.  The  difference 
in  culture  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  degree ;  it  is  a  difference 
in  kind.  It  is  not  that  one  is  so  much  higher  than  the 
other,  as  is  the  case  where  the  Negro  and  most  of  the  lower 
races  are  in  contact  with  the  whites,  as  that  they  are  dif 
ferent  civilizations.  To  depart  from  one  is  not  to  approach 
the  other;  it  is  simply  to  decline  in  that  civilization. 

In  this  situation,  the  mixed-blood  individuals  must  be 
either  Europeans  or  Orientals.  They  cannot  occupy  a  status 
above  the  one  race  and  below  the  other.  The  civilizations 
are  not  so  serially  arranged.  The  hybrids  cannot  be  part 
one  and  part  the  other.  They  may  occupy  an  inferior  sta 
tus  in  either  group,  but  this  is  not  an  indication  that  they, 
for  that  reason,  stand  nearer  to  the  other.  They  cannot 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         329 

break  connections  with  the  white  group  without  discarding 
European  civilization;  to  go  over  to  the  colored  group 
would  be  to  accept  the  civilization  of  the  Indians.  But  to 
the  Orientals,  the  Eurasians  are  as  much  outcast  as  they 
are  to  the  Europeans;  they  can  no  more  be  Hindus  than 
they  can  be  Englishmen.  They  must  give  up  one  civiliza 
tion  or  the  other,  and  content  themselves  as  best  they  may 
with  the  status  assigned  them  by  the  group  with  which  they 
elect  to  be  identified.  The  older  Portuguese  Eurasians  have 
for  the  most  part  reverted  to  the  Indian  civilization  and 
accepted  a  special  status  therein.  The  English  Eurasians 
or  "Indo-Europeans"  have  endeavored  to  be  English  38  and 
have  received  some  recognition  from  the  British  rulers, 
though  they  are  nowhere  accepted  by  the  Europeans  on 
terms  of  social  equality.  They  occupy  subordinate  clerical 
positions  in  the  government  service  and  are  almost  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  English  patronage  for  the  means  of 
existence. 

The  Eurasian  occupies  an  unenviable  position.  He 
is  too  proud  to  mix  with  the  natives,  who  will,  indeed, 
have  none  of  him,  and  the  European  shuns  him.  He 
is  a  sort  of  social  neutral  stratum,  regarded  as  for 
eign  and  looked  upon  with  suspicion  by  the  brown 
race,  and  looked  down  on  with  contempt  by  the  white. 
Popularly  supposed  to  inherit  all  the  vices  and  none 
of  the  virtues  of  his  parents,  there  is  little  ever  said 
in  his  favor.  I  fear  you  cannot  call  the  Eurasian  trust 
worthy  or  truthful  as  a  class,  though  of  course  there 
are  many  honorable  exceptions.  Certain  it  is  he  sel 
dom  rises  to  high  employ,  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
clerkly  duties,  for  he  has  an  unconquerable  aversion  to 
physical  work  or  energy  of  any  sort.  The  Eurasian 
88 ".  .  .  they  cling  to  their  connection  with  the  ruling  class  with  a 

pride    and    persistency    that    is    almost    pathetic."      Herbert    Compton, 

Indian  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  p.  210. 


330  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

society  is  one  apart  and  unique,  and  its  etiquette  and 
manners  are  often  a  fine  burlesque  on  those  of  the 
white  race,  with  which  its  members  are  proud  to  claim 
connection.  Their  womenfolk  affect  gaudy  colours, 
and  a  Eurasian  ball  will  display  as  many  rainbow  tints 
as  a  mulatto  one.  .  .  ."  30 

They  are  a  sensitive,  generally  discontented,  and  trouble 
some  element  in  the  community.40  Their  presence  creates 
the  most  difficult  of  the  minor  problems  in  India.  They 
stand  in  the  presence  of  two  civilizations  and  two  race 
groups,  but  they  are  members  of  neither.  They  are  com 
pelled  to  remain  a  special  group  accepted  by  neither  race 
and  despised  by  both.41  They  are  neither  a  connecting 
link  between  the  races  nor  a  harmonizing  group  between 
the  extreme  racial  types.  They  are  no  more  the  spokesman 
or  representative  of  the  Hindus,  than  they  are  of  the 
English.  They  are  simply  outcasts  from  both  races  with 
no  natural  role  or  dignified  social  status  in  the  Indo-Euro 
pean  situation. 

Elsewhere  in  the  East,  the  Oriental-European  half-breed 
has  developed  much  the  same  type  of  mind.  He  has  no 
part  to  play  in  the  inter-racial  situation;  he  is  himself  a 
problem.42  "The  East  seems  to  me  to  teach  emphatically 
that  the  crossing  of  different  races  is  always  and  every 
where  a  bad  thing." 

30  Compton,  Indian  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  pp.  208-9. 

40  At  the  time  of  the  Sepoy  mutiny  the  Eurasians  cast  their  lot  with 
the  Europeans  and  for  a  time  a  certain  solidarity  was  established 
between  them  but  the  friendly  feeling  scarcely  outlasted  the  time  of 
danger. 

"filis&j  Reclus,  Asia,  Vol.  3,  p.  389. 

"See  James  A.  LeRoy,  The  Americans  in  the  Philippines,  pp.  26% 
65,  68  if.  Charles  E.  Woodruff,  "Some  Laws  of  Racial  and  Intellec 
tual  Development,"  Journal  of  Race  Development,  Vol.  3,  p.  175. 

"President  Eliot,  Chautauquan,  Vol.  70,  p.  285.     See,  also,  Wu  Ting- 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         331 

Under  certain  other  conditions,  the  presence  of  the  mu 
latto  population  is  utilized  to  lessen  the  friction  between 
the  pure-blooded  races.  The  natural  tendency  of  its  mem 
bers  to  form  a  separate  parasitic  caste  when  denied  social 
equality  with  the  dominant  race  is  seized  upon  and  fos 
tered,  and  a  caste  developed  in  the  community  separate  from 
either  the  white  or  the  black,  and  standing  between  the  two. 
In  this  position,  they  lessen  the  amount  of  contact  between 
the  extreme  types  of  the  population  and  so  may  lessen  the 
clash  between  the  races.  They  are  used  as  a  buffer  between 
the  pure-blooded  groups. 

It  is  in  about  this  role  that  the  mulatto  seems  to  figure  in 
the  racial  situation  in  the  British  colony  of  Jamaica.  The 
group  of  ruling  whites  is  very  small,44  but  here,  as  else 
where,  the  English  have  refused  to  debase  their  civilization 
by  compromising  with  the  colored  element  in  the  formation 
of  their  national  institutions.  The  civilization  is  distinct 
ively  English.  But  the  governmental  policy,  dictated  by 
the  home  office,  has  been  devised  with  a  view  towards  har 
mony  between  the  races.45 

The  mulattoes  are  not  a  numerically  important  part  of 
the  Negro  population,  but  the  white  rulers  have  realized 
their  possibilities  for  harm  as  dissatisfied  agitators  among 
the  blacks.  They  also  have  realized  the  possibilities  of  the 
group  as  a  harmonizing  factor  in  the  racial  situation.  As 
a  consequence,  they  have  utilized  the  mixed-bloods  as  a 
means  of  control  of  the  lower  and  more  numerous  group, 

Fang,  "China,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  pp.  128-29,  and  Moh.  Sourour 
Bey,  "Egypt,"  Inter-Racial  Problems,  p.  1TO. 

44  About  2  per  cent.     See  p.  66  above. 

"That  English  opinion,  not  local  opinion,  must  be  the  ultimate  judge 
of  local  affairs  is  the  conscious  policy  of  British  Colonial  rule.  See 
Gilbert  Murray,  "Empire  and  Subject  Races,"  Nationalities  and  Subject 
Races,  pp.  7-8. 


332  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

and  as  a  means  of  lessening  the  friction  between  the  ex 
treme  types  of  the  population  on  the  Island. 

By  catering  to  the  mulattoes'  desire  for  special  recog 
nition  and  by  fostering  their  caste  feeling  of  superiority  to 
the  blacks,40  the  English  have  built  up  a  middle-class  group 
between  the  white  aristocracy  and  the  black  peasantry. 
This  group  includes  the  educated  and  professional  classes 
of  the  Negro  group  and  the  more  successful  colored  indi 
viduals  in  all  lines  of  human  endeavor.47  The  mulattoes  be 
long  to  the  intermediate  class  by  right  of  birth.48  Black 
men  occasionally  gain  admittance  if  endowed  with  special 
natural  ability,  or  if  they  have  been  exceptionally  successful 
in  the  accumulation  of  property.49 

This  mulatto  class  has  been  separated  in  sentiments  and 

40  The  pride  of  the  Jamaican  in  his  white  blood  is  shared  by  the  other 
mixed-bloods  of  the  Islands.  "The  Native  Bermudians  (brown)  con 
sider  themselves  much  superior  to  the  (black)  Jamaicans."  See  Flor 
ence  H.  Doneilson,  Appendix  B  (a)  in  Davenport,  Heredity  of  Skin 
Color,  p.  105. 

47  Earl   Finch,   "The    Effects    of   Racial    Miscegenation,"   Inter-Racial 
Problems,  p.  111. 

48  "There  is  a  considerable  element  of  the  Jamaica  population  which 
is  known  as  'sambo,'  an  element  with  about  one-fourth  of  white  blood; 
this   Caucasian  or   Semitic   mixture  shows   itself  plainly  in  their  color 
or    their    features,   and    they    should,    strictly   speaking,    be   classed    as 
'coloured.'     But  very  few  members  of  this  section  of  the  people  have 
so  classified  themselves  in  the  census  .  .  .  the  term  coloured,  having  by 
custom  come  to  be  applied  to  persons   of  a   distinctly  brown  or  clear 
complexion."      H.    G.    de    Lisser,    Twentieth    Century    Jamaica,    p.    44. 
Quoted  by   Charles   K.   Needham,  "A  Comparison  of  Some   Conditions 
in  Jamaica  with  those  in  the  United  States,"  Journal  of  Race  Develop 
ment,  Vol.  4,  p.  192. 

49  Ibid.,   pp.   191-92.     Catering   still    further   to   the   mulattoes'   desire 
to  be  white  certain  members   of  the  mulatto   group  of  less  than   one- 
fourth    Negro   blood   are   allowed   to    designate   themselves    "whites    by 
law."     Membership  in  the  latter  group  is  conditioned  by  the  whiteness 
of  skin.     They  are  the  social  aristocracy  of  the  mulatto  group  though 
by  no  means  necessarily  the  men  of  superior  ability. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         333 

interests  from  the  black  group  50  by  a  deliberate  and  thor 
ough-going  application  of  the  "divide  and  rule"  policy.51 
By  a  judicious  distribution  of  petty  political  offices  and 
honors,52  the  whites  secure  their  loyalty  and  cooperation  in 
the  affairs  of  government  in  spite  of  the  rigid  color  line 
which  they  draw  against  them  in  social  affairs.  Any  Negro 
who  shows  ability  or  talent  for  leadership  is  diplomatically 
separated  from  the  black  group  and  his  loyalty  to  the  gov 
ernment  and  to  the  ruling  whites  assured  by  a  political  or 
other  honor  proportional  to  his  danger  as  a  disgruntled 
agitator  among  the  blacks.  Such  political  honor  or  the 
accumulation  of  a  considerable  amount  of  property  will 
allow  him  entrance  to  "colored"  society  and,  if  the  honor 
or  the  fortune  be  sufficient,  assure  him  a  mulatto  wife.53 
The  larger  the  fortune,  the  whiter  the  wife. 

In  this  way  the  black  race  is  separated  from  its  natural 
leaders  and  remains  a  black  and  happy,  a  contented  and 
helpless  mass.54  The  mulatto,  dependent  upon  the  white 
aristocracy  for  his  political  position  and  business  oppor 
tunities  and  flattered  by  a  racial  designation  that  separates 
him  from  the  peasantry  and  implies  his  superiority  to  it, 

80  J.  A.  Fronde,  The  English  in  the  West  Indies,  pp.  24-25. 

E1  See  Sir  Henry  Cotton,  Nationalities  and  Subject  Races,  pp.  46-47, 
and  Lala  Lajpat  Rai,  "The  Present  Condition  in  India,"  Nationalities 
and  Subject  Races,  pp.  32,  39.  The  discussion  here  is  in  regard  to 
the  Indian  policy. 

Compare  the  "divide  and  rule"  policy  of  Spain's  early  colonial  policy. 
H.  C.  Morris,  The  History  of  Colonization,  Vol.  1,  pp.  252-53. 

82 ".  .  .  'colored'  men  occupy  most  of  the  subordinate,  and  some  of 
the  higher  positions  in  the  public  service."  W.  P.  Livingstone,  "The 
West  Indian  and  American  Negro:  A  Contrast,"  North  American  Re 
view,  Vol.  185,  p.  647.  See,  also,  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New 
World,  pp.  280,  268. 

63  Thorp,  World's  Work,  Vol.  8,  pp.  4912-13. 

**  Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Jamaica;  Thorp,  World's  Work,  Vol.  8, 
p.  4910;  Froude,  English  in  the  West  Indies,  p.  50. 


334  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

maintains  that  obsequious  and  respectful  attitude  of  mind 
toward  his  superiors  which  is  a  universal  characteristic  of 
the  dependent  and  the  unfree.55  Harmony  between  the  races 
is  maintained  at  the  price  of  a  helpless  peasantry  and  an 
intellectually  prostituted  middle-class  group.56 

This  temporizing  policy  adopted  in  Jamaica  is  in  strong 
contrast  to  that  followed  where  the  group  of  the  white 
race  in  actual  daily  contact  with  the  Negroes  has  been 
allowed  to  dictate  the  relationship  of  the  races.57  In  all 

B5The  mulattoes  are  not  in  all  cases  satisfied  with  the  arrangement. 
Davenport  quotes  "An  olive-skinned  man"  as  saying:  "  'I've  often 
said  I'd  change  the  British  flag  for  the  American  flag  any  day.  In 
America  they  are  prejudiced  against  all  colored  people.  You  may  be 
a  millionaire,  but  if  you're  colored  you  can't  marry  into  white  families 
or  associate  with  them.  Here  with  the  English,  if  you  are  colored  and 
have  money  you  are  all  right,  they  associate  with  you;  but  if  you 
haven't  money  you  are  nowhere.  The  English  aren't  as  honest  as  the 
American,  for  they  (English)  hate  the  color  just  the  same  and  only 
accept  it  for  the  money.  .  .  .' "  Heredity  of  Skin  Color,  Appendix  B 
(b),  p.  106.  See,  also,  Livingston,  North  American  Review,  Vol.  185, 
pp.  646-47. 

58  H.  E.  Jordan,  "Biological  Status  and  Social  Worth  of  the  Mulatto," 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol.  82,  p.  573,  stresses  the  absence  of  politi 
cal  contention,  Jamaica  not  being  a  self-governing  colony,  in  account 
ing  for  the  diiference  in  the  race  problem  in  Jamaica  and  the  United 
States.  ".  .  .  But  perhaps  the  perfect  adjustment  between  the  races 
in  Jamaica  and  the  elimination  of  any  'problem'  of  this  kind  finds  its 
explanation  in  a  more  rational  and  a  more  consistent  political  treat 
ment  made  possible  by  the  absence  of  any  constitutional  prescription. 
We  may  well  suspect  that  the  inconsistency  of  according  to  the  negro 
legal  (constitutional)  equality  and  withholding  it  practically  (politi 
cally  and  socially)  has  had  a  morally  harmful  effect  upon  both  black  and 
white.  To  stultify  oneself  as  between  one's  theory  and  practice  is 
always  subversive  of  high  moral  tone.  .  .  ." 

67  It  is  also  very  different  from  the  German  native  policy.  The  Ger 
mans,  believing  that  an  educated  native  of  any  shade  of  color  is  neces 
sarily  a  rascal,  have  avoided  the  complications  produced  by  a  semi- 
educated  native  population  by  conforming  their  native  educational  policy 
to  the  industrial  needs  of  the  situation.  Keller,  Colonization,  p.  589. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         335 

these  cases,  the  mulattoes  are  definitely  excluded  from  so 
cial  equality  with  the  whites  and  forced  to  find  their  asso 
ciates  either  with  the  colored  group  or  among  others  of 
their  own  kind.  No  special  provision  has  been  made  for 
them  and  they  are  dependent  upon  their  own  exertions- 
favored  by  the  prestige  their  color  gives  them — for  their 
success  in  life.  No  self-governing,  North  European  group 
ever  has  been  willing  to  compromise  its  civilization  by  admit 
ting  the  lower  race  to  an  equal  hand  in  the  affairs  of  gov 
ernment.  The  more  numerous  the  individuals  in  the  colored 
group  and  the  more  their  presence  endangers  civilized  stand 
ards,  the  more  unyielding  has  been  the  policy  of  exclusion. 

In  the  self-governing  colonies  of  South  Africa,  no  effort 
is  made  to  follow  a  policy  toward  the  mulattoes  that  will 
insure  harmony  between  the  races.58  An  impassable  color 
line  is  drawn  by  the  whites  between  the  races.  The  white 
man  recognizes  no  difference  between  the  various  grades  of 
Negroes  and  Negro  intermixtures  below  him  in  the  social 
scale.59  Consequently,  the  mixed-bloods  cannot  form  a 
buffer  between  the  races  as  in  Jamaica.  Intermarriage  does 
not  occur  and  the  refusal  of  the  whites  to  '  recognize  the 
mixed-bloods  as  being  on  a  higher  social  plane  than  the 
natives,  prevents  them  from  being  either  a  physiological  or 
a  social  connecting  link  between  the  races. 

The  mulattoes,  superior  here  as  elsewhere,  to  the  black 
element  of  their  ancestry,  resent  the  refusal  of  the  white 
man  to  recognize  their  superiority  and  grant  them  special 
privileges  and  a  special  status.60  They  are  a  discontented 
and  troublesome  element  in  the  community.61  They  cannot 

58  H.  E.  S.  Freemantle,  The  New  Nation,  pp.  217-18. 

59  James  Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa,  p.  375. 

60  M.  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  South  East  Africa,  p.  289. 

61  Freemantle,   The  New  Nation,  pp.  319-20. 


336  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

break  with  the  white  group  and  identify  themselves  with 
the  black  without  discarding  all  the  essential  elements  of 
white  civilization.62  Their  situation  is,  in  many  respects, 
like  that  of  the  Eurasians.  Both  groups  stand  between 
races  having  a  strong  sense  of  racial  integrity  and  race 
pride.  Both  groups  have  to  choose  between  the  civilizations. 
The  South  African  mulattoes  can  no  more  stand  as  part- 
native  and  part-white,  than  the  Eurasians  can  be  part- 
Hindu  and  part-European. 

The  South  African  mulattoes,  then,  are  without  a  part 
to  play  in  the  racial  situation.  Numerically  they  are  an 
insignificant  part  of  the  native  population.  The  numbers, 
the  organization,  and  the  better  developed  sense  of  national 
pride  and  racial  integrity  among  the  natives  prevent  the 
mulattoes  from  enjoying  great  prestige  among  the  black 
group.  Their  importance  in  the  native  group  depends  upon 
their  worth  rather  than  on  the  whiteness  of  their  skin.  Con 
sequently,  the  mulattoes  are  slow  to  go  over  to  the  native 
population  and  identify  themselves  with  the  native  group. 
They  play  no  dignified  role  in  the  racial  situation.63 

It  remains  to  note  in  somewhat  more  detail  the  role  that 
the  mulatto  has  played  and  now  plays  in  the  racial  situa 
tion  in  the  United  States.  This  falls  more  or  less  naturally 
into  three  pretty  distinct  parts:  I.  his  role  under  the 

63  The  mulatto  of  course  has  no  desire  to  do  so.  His  contempt  for 
the  native  is  as  great  as  is  that  of  the  white  man.  The  prejudice  be 
tween  different  groups  for  example,  is  so  great  that  there  are  in  Natal 
separate  schools  for  natives,  natives  of  St.  Helena,  Indians,  Natal  half- 
breeds  and  Mauritians.  See  M.  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  South 
ern  States,  p.  262. 

83  For  a  discussion  of  the  so-called  Ethiopian  movement  see  Free- 
mantle,  The  New  Nation,  pp.  184-85;  "The  South  African  Natives,"  Ch. 
4,  Report  of  the  South  African  Native  Races  Committee;  Current  Liter 
ature,  Vol.  39,  pp.  63-64. 


Role  of  Mulatto  in  Inter-Racial  Situation         337 

slavery  and  reconstruction  regimes ;  II.  the  present  day  "in 
tellectuals"  or  "radicals,"  and  III.  the  present  day  "conserv 
atives"  or  "middle-class"  group.  A  consideration  of  these 
stages  in  the  mulattoes'  role  in  the  United  States  will  be  the 
task  of  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  ROLE  OF  THE  MULATTO  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

BETWEEN  the  Negro  and  the  white  American  there 
always  has  been  absolute  social  separation  on  the  basis 
of  color.  At  the  time  of  their  first  contact  on  America  i 
soil,  the  two  races  differed  in  language,  customs,  and  habits 
of  life;  in  moral,  mental,  and  religious  development,  as  well 
as  in  ethnic  origin,  historical  tradition,  and  physical  appear 
ance.  A  black  skin,  therefore,  very  quickly  came  to  signify 
an  inferior  culture  and,  only  a  little  later,  came  to  be  the 
badge  of  a  servile  condition.  Between  these  races,  there 
could  be  no  social  equality ;  there  was  not  even  a  possibility 
of  a  harmonious  working  relation  except  on  the  basis  of 
superiority  and  subordination. 

When  individuals  of  mixed  ancestry  presently  appeared, 
there  was  manifested  no  disposition  to  treat  them  as  essen 
tially  different  from  the  Negro.  Their  physical  appear 
ance,  though  markedly  different  from  that  of  the  pure- 
blooded  race,  was  sufficiently  marked  to  set  them  off  as  a 
peculiar  people.  In  large  part,  they  were  the  offspring  of 
a  class  of  whites  whose  degraded  status  was  not  markedly 
superior  to  the  status  of  the  Negro;  when  such  was  not 
the  case,  the  bastard  origin  of  the  mulattoes  shocked  the 
conventional  moral  sense  of  the  community  and  militated 
against  a  community  recognition  of  them  as  socially  supe 
rior  to  the  Negroes  of  full  blood.  This  attitude  presently 
found  formal  expression  in  the  legislative  enactments  which 

338 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         339 

assigned  the  mulatto  to  the  status  of  the  mother. 

But  the  individual  mulatto  was,  or  what  amounted  to  the 
same  thing  was  believed  to  be,  intellectually  superior  to  the 
full-blooded  Negro.  Consequently,  the  occupational  differ^., 
entiation  within  the  race  everywhere  operated  to  his  advan 
tage.  The  favored  classes  among  the  slaves,  as  the  numbers 
of  the  mulattoes  increased,  came  more  and  more  to  be  light- 
colored  classes.  The  trained  mechanics  and  the  trusted 
servants  were  drawn  from  the  most  intelligent;  these  were 
always  assumed  to  be  the  mulattoes.  Moreover,  the  mu 
lattoes  made  a  better  appearance  than  the  black  Negro 
and  were  less  offensive  in  close  association,  and  so  gravitated 
to  those  house  and  personal  duties  which  brought  them  into 
personal  association  with  the  master  class.  The  plantation 
slaves  and  the  rough  laborers  in  the  cities  and  the  towns 
were  the  black  men.  The  division  was,  of  course,  not  every 
where  equally  marked  and  it  was  seldom  a  sharp  and  com 
plete  separation.  There  were  many  full-blooded  blacks 
among  the  favored  classes  and  there  were  mulattoes  in  con 
siderable  numbers  among  the  lower  classes  of  slaves,  but 
the  tendency  was  toward  a  more  and  more  complete  separa 
tion  of  the  colors.  Manumission  further  widened  the  breach 
that  existed  in  bondage.  The  free  Negro  group  at  all  times 
contained  a  preponderance  of  mulattoes ;  in  some  places  it 
was,  to  all  intent  and  purpose,  a  mulatto  group.  Such  edu 
cation  of  the  Negro  as  existed  before  the  war  was  almost 
entirely  mulatto  education ; 1  it  was  limited  to  the  free 
Negroes  and  to  certain  favored  individuals  and  groups 
among  the  slaves.  All  things  tended  to  make  the  mulatto 
a  superior  man  and  to  make  the  superior  groups  among 

*A  failure  to  recognize  this  fact  is  a  glaring  defect  in  the  most 
important  recent  study  of  this  subject  by  a  mulatto.  See  C.  G.  Wood- 
son,  The  Education  of  the  Negro  Prior  to  1861, 


340  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  Negro  race,  mulatto  groups. 

On  their  side,  the  mulattoes  were  not  slow  to  recognize 
their  superiority  and  to  exaggerate  it.  The  lack  of  sym 
pathy,  for  example,  between  the  house  servants — largely 
mulatto — and  the  field  hands — mostly  black  men — was 
throughout  the  slavery  period  a  characteristic  feature  of 
the  institution.2  As  freemen,  the  mulattoes  formed  sepa 
rate  societies,  where  they  existed  in  numbers  sufficient  to 
permit  it,  and  held  themselves  aloof  from  the  slaves  and 
the  black  men.  In  the  North,  the  free  Negroes  came  to 
recognize  the  slavery  of  slaves,  but  claimed  special  recog 
nition  for  themselves  as  free  men.3  During  the  slave  regime, 
the  free  mulatto  society  of  Charleston  became  an  elaborately 
organized  and  highly  exclusive  institution.  It  still  exists  in 
much  of  its  pristine  glory.4  In  Louisiana  and  especially  in 
Mobile  and  New  Orleans,  the  free  Latin-Negro  Creoles  were  so 
far  separated  in  fact  and  in  sympathy  from  the  Negroes  and 
the  slaves,  that  they  volunteered  their  services  to  the  Con 
federacy  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War/  Elsewhere, 
though  the  break  was  generally  not  so  obvious  nor  so  wide, 
the  same  caste  feeling  separated  the  mulatto  and  the  free 
Negro  from  the  black  man  and  the  slave. 

This  potential  mulatto  class,  however,  received  no  spe 
cial  recognition  from  the  dominant  race.  However,  much 
as  the  mixed-bloods  may  have  been  favored  as  individuals 

8E.  Atkinson,  "'The  Negro  a  Beast,'"  North  American  Review,  Vol. 
181,  p.  209. 

•W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Souls  of  Black  Folk,  p.  49. 

4  "In  places  like  Charleston  they  had  (and  still  have  to  some  extent) 
an  exclusive  society  of  their  own  which  looked  down  on  the  black 
Negro  with  a  prejudice  equal  to  that  of  the  white  man."  Ray  Stan- 
nard  Baker,  "The  Tragedy  of  the  Mulatto,"  American  Magazine, 
Vc!.  65,  p.  588.  See,  also,  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the 
Southern  States,  p.  93. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

while  in  bondage  and  helped  as  individual  freemen,  the  dom 
inant  group  everywhere  refused  to  recognize  mixture  of 
blood  as  sufficient  basis  for  special  class  recognition.  The 
dominant  group  classed  all  Negroes,  regardless  of  color, 
as  members  of  the  black  race,  and  made  divisions  among 
them  on  other  lines.  Their  classification  was  an  economic 
and  not  an  ethnic  one;  they,  for  example,  separated  the 
Negroes  into  slave  and  free,  into  house  servants  and  plan 
tation  hands,  and  in  various  other  ways  according  to  the 
special  situation.  That  these  legal  and  industrial  divisions 
corresponded  largely  to  the  division  of  the  race  into  mixed- 
bloods  and  pure-bloods  was,  from  the  white  man's  point  of 
view,  incidental.  He  refused  to  countenance  the  mulatto 
group  as  a  superior  class  in  the  community.  The  mulat- 
toes,  therefore,  had  only  the  pride  of  their  white  blood  to 
sustain  them  as  a  separate  and  superior  caste. 

Throughout  the  slavery  period,  the  mulattoes  were  usu 
ally  not  the  leaders  of  the  race;  if  indeed,  one  can  speak 
of  leaders  before  the  Emancipation.5  They  were,  in  most 
cases,  the  superior  individuals  among  the  race ; 6  they  were 
hardly  in  a  position  to  be  leaders,  they  lacked  the  recogni 
tion  of  the  dominant  race.  Those  who  were  free  were  equally 
far  from  leadership.  They  were,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
North  and  consequently  they  were  generally  without  per 
sonal  acquaintance  with  the  real  Negro  and,  in  most  cases, 
without  any  accurate  knowledge  of  Southern  life  and  con 
ditions.  They  believed  themselves  to  be  superior  to  the  black 
man  and  felt  themselves  to  be  inferior  to  the  white  man.7 

B ".  .  .  The  great  mass  of  the  Negro  people  in  the  United  States  were 
dumb.  In  the  plantation  states,  the  black  man  was  a  chattel;  in  the 
Northern  states,  he  was  a  good  deal  of  an  outlaw."  Booker  T.  Washing 
ton,  Frederick  Douglass,  p.  98. 

"See  p.   190  if.  above. 

TJ.  R.  Ficklin,  History  of  Reconstruction  in  Louisiana,  p.  127. 


The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

They  formed,  or  tended  to  form,  separate  groups  somewhere 
between  the  two  and  out  of  touch  and  sympathy  with  both. 
It  was  a  matter  of  class  separation  on  horizontal  lines 
rather  than  a  matter  of  leadership. 

In  the  anti-slavery  propaganda,  the  Negro  or  the  Mulatto 
had  little  part.8  He  was  the  object  about  which  the  fac 
tions  contended,  but  was,  for  the  most  part,  not  himself  an 
actor  in  the  drama.  Certain  Negroes  were  exploited  by 
the  abolitionists  for  campaign  and  demonstration  purposes,9 
but  so  far  as  this  was  not  the  case,  they  were  a  quiescent 
and  non-participating  group  in  the  national  struggle. 
Baker  10  gives  an  accurate  summary  of  the  situation : 

In  the  antebellum  slavery  agitation  Negroes  played 
no  consequential  part ;  they  were  an  inert  lump  of  hu 
manity  possessing  no  power  of  inner  direction;  the 
leaders  on  both  sides  of  the  struggle  that  centered 
around  the  institution  of  slavery  were  white  men.  The 
Negroes  did  not  even  follow  poor  old  John  Brown. 
After  the  war  the  Negro  continued  to  be  an  issue  rather 
than  a  partaker  in  politics,  and  the  conflict  continued 
to  be  between  groups  of  white  men.  .  .  .  Even  in  Re 
construction  times,  and  I  am  not  forgetting  exceptional 
Negroes  like  Bruce,  Revels,  Pinchback  and  others,  the 
Negro  was  a  partaker  in  the  government  solely  by  vir- 

8  A  complete  list  of  the  Negroes   who  took   any  active  or  important 
part    in    the    propaganda    is    given    on   page    192    above.     Washington, 
Frederick  Douglass,  pp.  154-55,  names  twelve,  all  of  whom  are  included 
in  the  list  above. 

9  "William  Lloyd  Garrison  was  quick  to  discern  that  the  cause  needed 
this  fugitive  slave,  more  than  any  other  man  or  thing,  as  an  argument 
and   an   illustration   of   the    further  work   of   the   anti-slavery    society." 
Washington,  Frederick   Douglass,   p.   72.     He   is   speaking  here   of  the 
anti-slavery  people  using  Douglass  as  an  exhibit.     See,  also,  p.  144. 

10  Ray    Stannard    Baker,    "Problems    of    Citizenship,"    Annals    of    the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Vol.  49,  p.  93. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         343 

tue  of  the  power  of  the  North.  As  a  class  the  Negroes 
were  not  self-directed,  but  were  used  by  the  Northern 
reconstructionists  and  certain  political  Southerners, 
who  took  most  of  the  offices  and  nearly  all  the  pilferings. 

After  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  many  Northern  mu- 
lattoes  presented  themselves  and  were  advanced  by  the  abo 
litionists  as  the  logical  leaders  of  the  newly  freed  race ;  11 
they  assumed  the  role  of  spokesmen  for  the  people  of  their 
color.  The  fact  that  they  were  members  of  the  Negro  race 
was  accepted  by  themselves  and  by  many  of  their  Northern 
friends  as  evidence  of  sufficient  qualification  for  the  delicate 
and  arduous  task  of  leading  and  representing  the  liberated 
blacks.12 

But  aside  from  the  caste  feeling  of  superiority  due  to 
their  white  blood,  their  longer  period  of  freedom,  and  their 
somewhat  superior  education,  these  Northern  mulattoes  were 
in  other  ways  disqualified  for  any  real  leadership.  The 
mulattoes  and  free  Negroes  were  for  the  most  part  city  men, 
while  the  Negroes  were,  and  had  always  been,  a  rural  popu 
lation.  The  natural  arrogance  and  naive  assumption  of 
superiority  which  seem  everywhere  to  be  persistent  traitsv 
of  the  city-bred  men,  served  to  widen  the  gulf  that  caste 
feeling  made  between  the  freedmen  and  their  proposed 
leaders.  They  did  not  understand  the  country  men.  The 
gap  was  still  further  widened  by  their  lack  of  knowledge 
of  the  South  and  the  conditions  prevailing  there.  Many  of 
them  had  been  associated  directly  or  indirectly  with  the 
abolitionists  who,  though  engaged  for  the  better  part  of  a 
generation  in  agitation,  knew  nothing  about  the  Negro,13 

11  See  Washington,  Frederick  Douglass,  p.  270-71. 

12  Booker  T.  Washington,  "Negro  Disfranchisement  and  the  Negro  in 
Business,"  Outlook,  Vol.  93,  p.  311. 

"Mr.  Washington  would  include  the  whole  North  as  well  as  the  abo- 


342  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

They  formed,  or  tended  to  form,  separate  groups  somewhere 
between  the  two  and  out  of  touch  and  sympathy  with  both. 
It  was  a  matter  of  class  separation  on  horizontal  lines 
rather  than  a  matter  of  leadership. 

In  the  anti-slavery  propaganda,  the  Negro  or  the  Mulatto 
had  little  part.8  He  was  the  object  about  which  the  fac 
tions  contended,  but  was,  for  the  most  part,  not  himself  an 
actor  in  the  drama.  Certain  Negroes  were  exploited  by 
the  abolitionists  for  campaign  and  demonstration  purposes,9 
but  so  far  as  this  was  not  the  case,  they  were  a  quiescent 
and  non-participating  group  in  the  national  struggle. 
Baker  10  gives  an  accurate  summary  of  the  situation : 

In  the  antebellum  slavery  agitation  Negroes  played 
no  consequential  part;  they  were  an  inert  lump  of  hu 
manity  possessing  no  power  of  inner  direction ;  the 
leaders  on  both  sides  of  the  struggle  that  centered 
around  the  institution  of  slavery  were  white  men.  The 
Negroes  did  not  even  follow  poor  old  John  Brown. 
After  the  war  the  Negro  continued  to  be  an  issue  rather 
than  a  partaker  in  politics,  and  the  conflict  continued 
to  be  between  groups  of  white  men.  .  .  .  Even  in  Re 
construction  times,  and  I  am  not  forgetting  exceptional 
Negroes  like  Bruce,  Revels,  Pinchback  and  others,  the 
Negro  was  a  partaker  in  the  government  solely  by  vir- 

8  A  complete  list  of  the  Negroes  who  took  any  active  or  important 
part    in    the    propaganda    is    given    on    page    192    above.      Washington, 
Frederick  Douglass,  pp.  154-55,  names  twelve,  all  of  whom  are  included 
in  the  list  above. 

9  "William  Lloyd  Garrison  was  quick  to  discern  that  the  cause  needed 
this  fugitive  slave,  more  than  any  other  man  or  thing,  as  an  argument 
and   an   illustration   of  the    further  work   of   the   anti-slavery   society." 
Washington,  Frederick   Douglass,   p.   72.     He   is   speaking  here  of  the 
anti-slavery  people  using  Douglass  as  an  exhibit.     See,  also,  p.  144. 

10  Ray    Stannard    Baker,    "Problems    of    Citizenship,"    Annals    of   the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Vol.  49,  p.  93. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

tue  of  the  power  of  the  North.  As  a  class  the  Negroes 
were  not  self-directed,  but  were  used  by  the  Northern 
reconstructionists  and  certain  political  Southerners, 
who  took  most  of  the  offices  and  nearly  all  the  pilferings. 

After  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  many  Northern  mu- 
lattoes  presented  themselves  and  were  advanced  by  the  abo 
litionists  as  the  logical  leaders  of  the  newly  freed  race ;  ll 
they  assumed  the  role  of  spokesmen  for  the  people  of  their 
color.  The  fact  that  they  were  members  of  the  Negro  race 
was  accepted  by  themselves  and  by  many  of  their  Northern 
friends  as  evidence  of  sufficient  qualification  for  the  delicate 
and  arduous  task  of  leading  and  representing  the  liberated 
blacks.12 

But  aside  from  the  caste  feeling  of  superiority  due  to 
their  white  blood,  their  longer  period  of  freedom,  and  their 
somewhat  superior  education,  these  Northern  mulattoes  were 
in  other  ways  disqualified  for  any  real  leadership.  The 
mulattoes  and  free  Negroes  were  for  the  most  part  city  men, 
while  the  Negroes  were,  and  had  always  been,  a  rural  popu 
lation.  The  natural  arrogance  and  nai've  assumption  of 
superiority  which  seem  everywhere  to  be  persistent  traits, 
of  the  city-bred  men,  served  to  widen  the  gulf  that  caste 
feeling  made  between  the  freedmen  and  their  proposed 
leaders.  They  did  not  understand  the  country  men.  The 
gap  was  still  further  widened  by  their  lack  of  knowledge 
of  the  South  and  the  conditions  prevailing  there.  Many  of 
them  had  been  associated  directly  or  indirectly  with  the 
abolitionists  who,  though  engaged  for  the  better  part  of  a 
generation  in  agitation,  knew  nothing  about  the  Negro,13 

"See  Washington,  Frederick  Douglass,  p.  270-71. 
"Booker  T.  Washington,  "Negro  Disfranchisement  and  the  Negro  in 
Business,"  Outlook,  Vol.  93,  p.  311. 
"Mr.  Washington  would  include  the  whole  North  as  well  as  the  abo- 


344  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

and  but  little  about  his  condition.  So,  in  addition  to  the 
prejudices  and  misconceptions  common  to  their  locality, 
the  mulattoes  were  handicapped  for  any  real  leadership  by 
the  possession  of  a  whole  body  of  sentimental  doctrine  which 
when  not  false  seldom  had  any  relation  to  the  objective  facts. 
The  abolitionists,  and  consequently  their  followers,  saw 
everything  in  terms  of  their  propaganda;  their  zealous  de 
votion  to  their  cause  obscured  their  perception  of  reality. 
Facts  were  made  to  fit  theory.  They  did  not  look  upon 
the  Negro  as  a  primitive  man  whom  slavery  had  been  slowly 
raising  to  a  higher  cultural  level;  they  looked  upon  him 
as  an  individual  whom  slavery  had  degraded  to  his  present 
condition;14  and  attributed  to  him  all  the  desirable  traits 
of  human  nature.  The  Negro  of  their  conception  was  an 
idealized  abstraction;  a  glorified  creature  of  the  imagina 
tion  and  of  the  Uncle  Tom's  type  of  literature.15  The  re 
frain  of  the  abolitionists  that  the  Negro  was  "half  a  cen 
tury  ahead  of  the  poor  white  man  of  the  South,"  was  ac 
cepted  by  their  mulatto  disciples  as  a  fact.  They  rarely 
had  anything  more  than  a  superficial  comprehension  of  the 
meaning  of  the  anti-slavery  propaganda  in  which  they  took 
part;  they  were  full  of  words,  abstractions  and  misconcep- 

litionists.  ".  .  .  the  people  of  the  North  had  .  .  .  little  knowledge  of 
the  Negro's  character.  .  .  ."  Frederick  Douglass,  p.  248. 

14  "The    Negro   inherits   a  brain   which   work   has   cultivated    for    four 
generations,  and  added  to  it  the  skill  of  a  practical  hand.     The  white 
man  inherits  a  brain  sodden  by  the  idleness  of  four  generations,  and  he 
has  improved  his  birthright  by   a  life  of  soddenness.  .  .  .  Fairly  con 
sidered,  the  only  class  ready  for  suffrage  in  the  South  is  the  Negro." 
Wendell     Phillips,     1865.       Quoted     by     F.     A.     Bancroft,     Negro    in 
Politics,  p.  10. 

15  This  idea  persists  among  the  Northern  mulattoes  even  to-day.     "I 
do  not  think  it  is  claiming  too  much  to  say  that  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin' 
was  a  fair  and  truthful  panorama  of  slavery;  .  .  ."     James  W.  John 
son,  The  Autobiography  of  an  Ex-colored  Man,  p.  40. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         345 

tions,  and,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  they  were  dominated 
by  the  fixed  determination  to  reverse  the  economic  and  so 
cial  status  of  the  two  races  in  the  South. 

When  these  men  went  into  the  South  after  the  war  to 
become  leaders  of  the  newly-freed  race,  many  of  them  for  the 
first  time  came  into  contact  with  the  real  Negro.  They  had 
known  an  abstraction.  The  Negro  and  the  conditions  of 
his  life  were  so  unlike  their  expectations,  and  their  own 
training  was  so  pitifully  inadequate  that,  in  the  crisis  of 
their  disillusionment  in  regard  to  the  Negro's  character  and 
conditions,  they  were  in  general  unable  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  real  conditions  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
them  valuable  men  in  the  situation.  The  disillusionment 
brought  a  reaction  in  their  sentiments  and  their  attitudes 
toward  him  and  toward  themselves.16  They  became  resent 
ful  toward  the  Negro.17  They  were  unwilling  or  unable  to 

18 ".  .  .  We  passed  along  until,  finally  we  turned  into  a  street  .  .  . 
and  here  I  caught  my  first  sight  of  colored  people  in  large  numbers.  .  .  . 
here  I  saw  a  street  crowded  with  them.  They  filled  the  shops  and 
thronged  the  sidewalks  and  lined  the  curb.  I  asked  my  companion  if 
all  the  colored  people  in  Atlanta  lived  in  this  street.  He  said  they  did 
not,  .  .  .  The  unkempt  appearance,  the  shambling,  slouching  gait  and 
loud  talk  and  laughter  of  these  people  aroused  in  me  a  feeling  of  almost 
repulsion.  .  .  ."  Johnson,  The  Autobiography  of  an  Ex-colored  Man, 
pp.  53-54. 

17  The  most  bitter  arraignment  of  the  Negro  which  at  the  same  time 
keeps  accurately  to  the  facts  is  the  volume  of  W.  H.  Thomas,  The 
American  Negro,  a  mulatto  who  went  South  after  the  War  to  be  a 
leader  of  the  race.  As  a  disclosure  of  the  mulattoes'  sentiments  and 
attitudes  it  is  the  most  valuable  single  document  in  Negro  literature. 
It  states  the  things  that  others  deny  or  endeavor  to  conceal.  Said  one 
of  the  most  widely  known  mulattoes  of  the  race  in  discussing  the  book: 
"Of  course  it's  true;  every  word  of  it  is  true.  But,  damn  it,  we  don't 
want  those  things  told."  The  chief  value  of  the  document,  however, 
is  quite  aside  from  the  facts  with  which  it  deals.  It  lies  in  the  treat 
ment  of  the  facts,  in  the  naive  disclosure  of  the  psychology  of  the  dis^ 
illusioned  mulatto. 


346  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

put  themselves  on  a  social  par  with  the  freedman  and  to 
attempt  to  help  him.  They  became  more  and  more  ashamed 
of  their  race  and  of  the  color  which  associated  them  with 
it.18  Their  contempt  for  the  blacks,  combined  with  their 
general  ignorance  of  what  to  do  or  how  to  do  it,  made  them 
for  the  most  part  men  of  no  value  in  the  situation.  Instead 
of  leaders,  the  mulattoes  from  the  North  tended  to  become 
agitators  and  so  to  become  an  additional  race  problem  with 
in  the  already  difficult  one  of  readjusting  the  relationships 
of  the  races. 

The  political  reconstruction  of  the  South  gave  a  brief 
opportunity  for  the  mulatto  and  Negro  politicians.19  In 
spite  of  the  War  and  the  Emancipation,  the  bulk  of  the 
Southern  Negroes  remained  loyal  to  their  Southern  whites 
and  willing  to  be  led  by  them.20  In  order  to  insure  the  per 
manent  supremacy  of  the  Republican  party  in  national 
politics,  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  use  the  newly- freed 
blacks.21  But  to  do  this,  it  was  necessary  to  separate  them 

18  The  repulsive  reaction  of  the  Northern  trained  mulatto  in  contact 
for  the  first  time  with  the  real  Negro  has  found  its  best  expression  to 
date  in  the  book  of  Mr.  DuBois,  The  Souls  of  Black  Folk.     This  book 
is   the  outcome  of  the  brief  period   of  bitter   exile   which   the  author 
spent  as  a  teacher  in  a  Negro  school  in  the   South.     Aside   from  the 
subject  matter  of  which  they  treat  these  essays  are  an  illuminating  dis 
closure  of  the  psychology  of  a  timid  and  unpractical  man,  white  in  train 
ing,  association,  and  thought  and  nearly  white  in  appearance,  with  no 
real  knowledge  of  his  race  and  with  only  an  academic  sympathy  for  it, 
who  is  thrown  for  the  first  time  among  a  body  of  blacks,  classed  with 
them,   compelled  to  find  his   associates   among  them   and  who    refuses, 
subconsciously,  to  accept  the  classification. 

19  These  Negro  politicians  were  very  largely  recruited   from  the  free 
Negro  class  of  the  South. 

20  Mr.  Washington  says  that  the  Negro  would  have  followed  the  lead 
ership  of  the  Southern  white  "as  willingly,  if  not  more  willingly,  than 
that  which  he  did  accept."    Frederick  Douglass,  p.  254. 

21  "As  you  once  needed  the  muskets  of  the  blacks,  so  now  you  need 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         347 

in  sympathy  from  their  late  masters.  The  first  agency  in 
the  destruction  of  this  loyalty  was  the  Freedman's  Bureau. 
To  complete  the  work  of  alienating  the  sympathy  of  the 
Southern  whites  and  blacks,  and  to  anchor  the  black  vote 
to  the  Republican  party,  was  a  task  of  the  Reconstruction 
policy  in  general.  To  this  end,  every  means  known  to  venal 
politics — from  simple  theft  to  official  murder — was  employed 
without  scruple  or  hesitation  by  a  group  of  men  debased 
beyond  the  power  of  common  language  to  describe.  Both 
races  suffered  from  the  policy. 

In  this  period,  the  Negro  and  mulatto  leaders  were  simply 
tools  in  the  hands  of  the  vandals.  The  independent  part 
they  had  in  the  political  life  of  the  time  was  not  an  im 
portant  nor  a  creditable  one.  A  few  men  of  ability  ap 
peared  and  also  a  few  honest  ones.22  The  majority  of  these 
men  and  all  of  any  ability  were  mulattoes.  The  great  mass 
of  these  Negro  politicians,  however,  was  not  markedly  su 
perior  to  the  rank  and  file  of  the  newly  enfranchised  race,23 
and  even  the  best  were  moved  by  no  conceptions  of  unselfish 
public  policy.24  In  nearly  all  cases,  they  were  wholly  un- 

their  votes."  Charles  Sumner,  Speech  in  the  Senate,  Works,  Vol.  11, 
p.  50. 

22  Washington,  Frederick  Douglass,  pp.  278-80. 

See,   also,   Negro    Year  Book    for   lists   of  these    Negro   politicians 
of  Reconstruction   days. 

23  "Beverly  Nash,  for  many  years  the  leader  in  the  Senate  and  on  the 
stump,   had   been    a   boot-black    and    a    hotel   porter."      Bancroft,    The 
Negro  in  Politics,  p.  30.     Nash  was  known  as  "a  five  thousand  dollar 
man,"  that  being  the  amount  he  always  asked  for  his  vote  on  important 
bills. 

M"<.  /.  if  the  Negro  knows  enough  to  fight  for  his  country,  he  knows 
enough  to  vote;  if  he  knows  enough  to  pay  taxes  to  support  the  govern 
ment,  he  knows  enough  to  vote;  if  he  knows  as  much  when  sober  as  an 
Irishman  knows  when  he  is  drunk,  he  knows  enough  to  vote.'"  Fred 
erick  Douglass.  Quoted  by  Washington,  Frederick  Douglass,  pp.  258-59. 


348  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

educated,25  without  responsibility,26  and  devoid  of  any  sense; 
of  public  or  private  honesty.  They  were,  just  as  they  wen; 
intended  to  be,  simply  a  convenient  means  by  which  the; 
white  politicians  could  more  easily  rob  and  steal:  the  Negro 
was  frequently  allowed  the  questionable  honor  of  holding  a. 
political  position,  while  the  white  politician  collected  the 
plunder.27 

The  end  of  the  Reconstruction  Period  marked  an  end 
of  the  Negro  as  a  participant  in  the  local  political  situation 
in  the  Southern  States.  The  withdrawal  of  the  Federal 
troops  and  the  restoration  of  law  and  order,  left  them  with 
out  a  vocation  or  a  support ;  they  had  no  work  or  place  in 
the  life  of  the  society.  In  large  measure,  they  left  tho 
South  at  the  close  of  the  period.  The  Federal  government, 
however,  always  has  been  liberal  in  the  bestowal  of  political 
offices  on  the  Negro  politicians,  and  a  few  continued  to 
exist  throughout  the  South. 

The  reaccommodation  of  the  races  after  the  war  and  the 
Emancipation,  and  especially  after  the  period  of  political 
reconstruction,  took  place  in  accordance  with  local  condi 
tions.  The  difference  in  different  regions  was,  in  the  main, 
due  to  the  presence  of  larger  or  smaller  numbers  of  the  un- 
assimilated  element  in  the  body  politic.  In  regions  where 
the  numbers  were  not  great,  they  could  be  ignored;  the 

26  In  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  of  1873  for  example,  many  of 
the  members  could  neither  read  nor  write.  In  Mississippi  "the  County 
supervisors  were  often  black,  only  a  few  of  whom  could  either  read 
or  write."  Bancroft,  The  Negro  in  Politics,  pp.  30,  39-40. 

26  In  the  South  Carolina  Senate  1868,  "Only  four  of  the  Negro  Sena 
tors  were  on  the  tax  books;  and  they  together  paid  only  $2.10.     Fifty- 
eight  of  the  colored  representatives  paid  no  taxes."    Ibid.,  p.  22. 

27  "After  a  session  or  two  of  apprenticeship  under  white  leaders,  many 
of  the  Negro  officials  became  adepts  in  the  shameless  practices  of  the 
time."     Ibid.,  pp.  29  ff. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         349 

greater  percentage  of  Negroes  in  other  regions  colored  the 
whole  subsequent  growth  of  the  community  life.  At  no  time 
or  place,  however,  were  the  Negroes  able  to  exercise  any 
marked  influence  on  the  course  of  events ;  they  were  nowhere 
able  to  modify  the  attitudes  or  even  the  overt  acts  of  the 
dominant  group.  The  policy  or  lack  of  policy  was  every 
where  dictated  by  the  white  race.  On  the  side  of  the  Ne 
groes,  it  was  marked  by  their  accommodation  to  a  social 
policy  which  they  were  not  able  to  control  or  modify.  The 
policy  has  varied  from  time  to  time  and  from  place  to  place, 
but  it  has  done  so  without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  Ne 
groes.  The  single  universal  fact  has  been  the  consistent 
denial  of  social  equality  to  members  of  the  race. 

In  the  South,  the  emancipation  of  the  Negro  was  followed 
by  a  prolonged  period  of  unfortunate  doctrinaire  experi 
mentation  which  retarded  a  reaccommodation  between  the 
races  that  held  any  promise  of  permanence  or  mutual  satis 
faction.  The  first  effect  of  the  emancipation,  once  the  Ne 
groes  realized  its  actuality,  was  a  complete  and  profound 
economic,  social,  and  moral  disorganization  of  the  Negro 
people.  The  white  South  was  confronted  with  the  problem 
of  adjusting  the  relations  of  the  races  in  conformity  with 
the  changed  economic  and  legal  conditions.  There  was 
no  precedent  to  guide  them.  Nowhere  had  two  such  races 
ever  arrived  at  mutually  satisfactory  working  relations  on 
any  other  basis  than  that  of  superiority  and  subordina 
tion.  Slavery  of  the  one  by  the  other  was  the  only  adjust 
ment  that  ever  had  worked. 

The  natural  difficulty  of  the  problem  was  made  yet  more 
difficult  by  the  period  of  punishment  visited  on  the  South  in 
the  decade  following  the  War.  The  promise  of  government 
grants  of  land  and  other  property  by  the  confiscation  of 
the  property  of  the  white  South  and  its  redistribution  among 


350  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  late  slaves,  intensified  the  general  economic  disorganiza 
tion  resulting  from  the  war  and  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves,  and  spread  among  the  Negroes  a  general  discontent 
with  their  condition  and  a  disinclination  to  improve  it  by 
any  real  and  continued  effort.28  The  efforts  to  improve 
the  Negroes'  condition  by  means  of  a  fashionable  literary 
education,  diverted  some  of  the  best  energies  of  the  race 
from  the  simpler  and  more  important  forms  of  education, 
produced  a  class  of  superficially  educated  men  unfitted  for 
any  useful  work  among  their  people.  The  increase  in  the 
number  of  these,  like  the  increase  of  the  uneducated  id  e 
riff-raff,  aggravated  the  friction  between  the  races.29  The 
efforts  of  the  missionaries  and  others  to  bring  about  a  revo 
lution  in  the  Negroes'  character  and  in  the  inter-racial  social 
life,  inflamed  their  social  ambitions  and  alienated  the  sym 
pathy  of  the  whites.  The  enfranchisement  of  the  blacks 
prevented  any  normal  division  of  opinion  on  matters  of  a 
public  social  nature.  The  paramount  need  of  bending  every 
effort  toward  the  preservation  of  their  civilization  retarded 
progress  toward  a  permanent  and  mutually  satisfactory  ad 
justment  between  the  races.30  The  result  of  this  period  was 
the  almost  complete  destruction  of  the  mutually  sympathetic 
feelings  which  so  generally  had  characterized  the  relations 
of  the  races  during  the  slave  period.31  As  time  went  on, 
such  friendlly  association  as  survived  the  Reconstruction 
days — principally  that  between  the  older  slaves  and  the 

28  W.  L.  Fleming,  "Forty  Acres  and  a  Mule,"  North  American  Review, 
Vol.  182,  pp.  721-37. 

28  McCord,  The  American  Negro  as  a  Dependent,  Defective  and  Delin 
quent,  p.  65. 

30  Bruce,  "Race  Segregation  in  the  United  States,"  Hibbert  Jour 
nal,  Vol.  13,  p.  868. 

"McCord,  The  American  Neyro  as  a  Dependent,  Defective  and  Delin 
quent,  p.  18. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         351 

older  slave  masters — became  less  and  less.  The  younger 
generation  of  both  races  had  not  the  body  of  sentiment  to 
withstand  the  crisis ;  those  of  a  later  generation  lacked  it 
altogether.32  After  a  decade,  the  mechanics  and  skilled 
workmen  in  all  industrial  and  domestic  lines  who  had  re 
ceived  their  training  under  the  slave  regime,  began  to  dis 
appear  or  to  become  too  old  for  further  effective  employ 
ment.33  The  new  education  had  trained  no  younger  ones 
to  take  their  places.  A  decline  in  the  Negroes'  condition 
was  inevitable ;  all  through  the  period  of  political  and  so 
cial  agitation  and  of  classical  education,  the  race  lost 
ground.  It  was  in  the  eighties  that  the  Northern  political, 
educational,  and  religious  tutelage  of  the  post-bellum  pe 
riod  was  coming  to  fruitage.34 

In  the  meanwhile,  however,  there  were  other  forces  at 
work  making  for  an  adjustment  of  the  races  in  accordance 
with  the  character  of  the  two  races  and  in  response  to  the 

""The  entire  body  of  Negroes,  under  middle  age,  have  not  even 
a  tradition  among  them  of  that  kindly  intercourse  between  the  master 
and  his  bondsmen  which  did  so  much  to  smooth  away  the  harsher  feat 
ures  of  slavery  in  its  practical  working.  They  cannot  understand  the 
feeling  of  loyalty  which  made  their  fathers  the  faithful  protectors  of  the 
Southern  white  women  and  children  when  all  the  white  men  had  been 
enrolled  in  the  armies  of  the  Confederacy."  Bruce,  Hibbert  Journal, 
Vol.  13,  p.  870.  This  loyalty  of  the  slave  to  his  former  master  is  a 
thing  that  frequently  does  not  fall  within  the  comprehension  of  the 
present  generation  of  mulattoes.  Benjamin  Brawley,  one  of  the  most 
capable  of  the  present  generation  of  mulattoes,  discussing  with  con 
siderable  insight  the  recent  fiction  dealing  with  Negro  characters,  is 
unable  to  grasp  the  fact  that  a  Negro  of  exceptional  type  should  have 
preferred  to  remain  with  the  old  master.  See,  "The  Negro  in  American 
Fiction,"  Dial,  Vol.  60,  pp.  445-50,  especially  the  criticism  of  "Abraham's 
Freedom"  (Atlantic,  9-1912),  pp.  448-49. 

"Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Future  of  the  American  Negro,  Chap 
ter  3. 

**  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston,  The  Negro  in  the  New  World,  p.  40S. 


352  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

influences  of  the  common  environment.  There  was  slowly 
growing  up  a  body  of  industrious,  law-abiding,  and  self- 
respecting  Negroes,  and  with  their  increase  in  number,  in 
wealth,  and  in  self-respect,  they  were  assuming  a  growing 
importance  in  the  affairs  of  the  race.  Previous  to  the  Eman 
cipation,  there  was  throughout  the  South  a  goodly  number 
of  property-owning  free  Negroes  with  a  respected  position 
in  the  life  of  the  community.  In  the  decades  immediately 
following  the  emancipation  of  the  Negroes,  the  Federal 
government  distributed  among  them  a  considerable  amount 
of  property  and,  in  addition  to  this  Federal  aid,  there  was 
the  plunder  which  in  many  of  the  states  came  to  the  race 
during  the  period  of  Negro  domination  in  political  affairs.35 
After  the  war,  and  especially  after  the  Reconstruction 
Period,  a  goodly  number  of  Negroes  had  returned  to  their 
plantations,  36  or  had  settled  down  elsewhere  and  had  begun 
to  lead  a  frugal  and  industrious  life,  to  educate  their  children 
and  otherwise  to  make  a  common  sense  effort  to  improve 
their  condition.37  The  conditions  of  life  were  absurdly 
easy.38  Any  industrious  and  sober  man  could,  as  the  re 
sult  of  a  few  years'  labor,  become  possessed  of  sufficient, 

85  In  only  a  few  cases,  however,  were  the  Negro  politicians  sufficiently 
shrewd  to  save  the  fortunes  accumulated  through  theft  and  corruption 
during  the  period  of  Negro  domination. 

88  Nicholas  Worth,  Autobiography,  p.   14. 

"For  the  most  part  these  were  men  who  had  received  an  industrial 
education  under  the  slave  regime.  See  Washington,  "The  Story  of 
the  Negro,"  Outlook,  Vol.  93,  p.  311. 

88  "It  was  easy  to  live  in  the  South.  The  mild  climate  and  fertile 
soil,  the  abundance  of  game  in  forest  and  stream,  the  bountiful  supply 
of  wild  fruits,  the  accessibility  of  forests  with  firewood  free  to  all,  the 
openhanded  generosity  and  universal  carelessness  of  living  made  it  pos 
sible  for  the  average  Negro  to  idle  away  at  least  half  his  time  and 
yet  live  in  tolerable  comfort."  G.  S.  Winston,  "The  Relations  of  the 
Whites  to  the  Negroes."  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  July,  1901. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         353 

land  and  other  property  to  make  him  independent  of  the 
wage  system.  An  honest,  industrious,  and  useful  Negro 
citizenship  was  the  desire  of  the  white  South  and  every 
Negro  who  showed  a  disposition  to  improve  his  condition 
received  the  encouragement  and  assistance  of  the  better 
class  of  white  men.39  In  spite  of  all  this,  however,  the  growth 
of  the  middle-class  was  abnormally  slow ;  40  but  there  grad 
ually  emerged  a  body  of  men  within  the  race  possessed 
of  a  little  property  and  of  an  ambition  to  accumulate 
more. 

The  two  forces  chiefly  responsible  for  the  rise  of  this 
racially  independent  middle-class,  and  a  consequent  new 
adjustment  of  the  races,  were  the  growth  of  the  agricul 
tural  and  industrial  education  for  the  Negro  and  the  segre 
gation  of  the  Negro  by  the  whites.41  The  whole  movement 
to  develop  an  industrially-educated,  land-owning,  law-abid 
ing,  and  decent-living  Negro  group  among  the  blacks,  usu 
ally  thought  of  in  connection  with  the  name  of  Booker  T. 
Washington,  was  the  result  of  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
white  South  and  some  of  the  saner  leaders  among  the 
Negro  people  to  make  the  Negro  see  and  grasp  his  oppor 
tunity.42  The  movement  was  based  on  the  wreck  of  the 

*°  So  general  was  the  assistance  of  Southern  white  men  to  the  am 
bitious  and  law-abiding  Negro  that  Mr.  Washington,  himself  the  best 
representative  of  this  growing  middle-class,  says  that  almost  every 
successful  man  of  the  race  can  trace  his  success  to  the  assistance  of  some 
white  neighbor  or  friend.  The  Story  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  2,  pp.  35  ff. 

40  Ibid.,  Vol.  2,  Chapter  2,  "The  Rise  of  the  Negro  Land-Owner,"  gives 
the  most  favorable  statement  of  the  case  that  can  be  made. 

41  These  two  main  forces  were,  of  course,  assisted  or  modified  by  va 
rious  minor  factors  operating  locally. 

"  "A  very  weak  argument  often  used  against  pushing  industrial 
training  for  the  Negro  is  that  the  Southern  white  man  favors  it,  and 
therefore,  it  is  not  best  for  the  Negro."  Washington,  The  Future  of 
the  American  Negro,  p.  64. 


354  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

earlier  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Negroes. 
Classical  education  for  the  race  was  everywhere  recognized 
to  have  failed.43  The  citizenship  that  had  been  given  them 
had  proved  their  detriment.44  The  campaign  for  social 
equality  had  been  even  more  injurious  to  the  Negroes  and 
had  proved  even  more  of  a  failure.45  The  discussion  of 
the  Negroes'  political  status  had  served  only  to  alienate  the 
sympathy  of  the  white  man  without  resulting  in  any  gain 
to  the  Negroes.46  Antagonizing  the  white  man,  bewailing  the 
fate  of  the  Negroes,  and  blaming  others  for  their  pitiable 
condition,  did  not  improve  the  situation.47  The  industria 
movement  was  based  on  a  recognition  of  the  facts  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  conditions.  There  was  a  frank  recognition 
of  the  failure  of  the  earlier  program,  an  honest  admission 
of  the  Negroes'  defects  of  character,48  an  honest  admission 
of  the  fact  that  the  Negroes  lacked  not  opportunity  so 
much  as  energy  and  intelligence  to  take  advantage  of  their 
opportunities ;  there  was  a  recognition  that  cooperation 
between  the  races  was  necessary  if  the  Negroes  were  to 


43  Just  as  the  ideal  of  literary  training  for  primitive  people  has  every 
where  failed  to  produce  satisfactory  results.    "The  defect  of  a  primarily 
literary  training  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  distracts  attention  from  the  real 
intellectual  needs  of  a  race.  ...  It  ordinarily  leads  to  a  dangerous  half- 
education   implying   a  well-trained   memory  but   an   undeveloped  judg 
ment,   together   with   an   overweening   self-confidence    and   vanity.  .  .  ." 
Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Colonial  Administration,  pp.  49-50. 

44  Washington,  The  Future  of  the  American  Negro,  p.  65. 

48  Booker  T.  Washington,  "Let  Down  Your  Buckets  Where  You  Are," 
Address  delivered  at  the  Cotton  States  Exposition  in  Atlanta,  Georgia, 
September  18,  1895.  Reprinted  in  Booker  T.  Washington,  Up  From 
Slavery:  Autobiography,  pp.  217-37. 

46  Hubert  H.  Bancroft,  The  New  Pacific,  pp.  606-7. 
Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  pp.  205-6. 

47  See  Edward  Ingle,  The  Negro  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  p.  42. 

45  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  pp.  204-5. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         355 

prove  themselves  desirable  members  of  society.49  It  was  a 
movement  from  within  the  race  and  the  section  of  the  coun 
try  affected. 

Washington  and  Tuskegee  were  selected  to  symbolize  the 
movement  which  has  come  to  be  the  most  important  factor 
working  for  the  development  of  the  Negro.  The  movement 
helped  to  build  up  a  self-respecting  and  useful  group  of 
successful  farmers,  mechanics,  tradesmen,  teachers,  and  the 
like  who  were  not  ashamed  of  their  work  or  of  their  color.50 
It  did,  in  a  constructive  and  positive  way,  what  the  policy 
of  segregation  was  doing  in  a  negative  way.51  The  Negro 
began  to  buy  land  and  to  assume  a  fixed  habitation.  To 
the  extent  that  he  did  so,  he  became  an  independent  and 
self-respecting  man  and  an  asset  to  the  community  in  which 
he  lived.52  As  this  self-respecting  class  grew  in  numbers, 
wealth,  and  importance,  it  formed  the  nucleus  about  which 
the  race  could  unite.  It  was  the  basis  for  a  nationality. 
As  the  spirit  of  race  pride  and  race  consciousness  and  pride 
of  accomplishment  increased,  there  was  an  increasing  tend 
ency  to  race  separation  and  consequently  to  the  develop 
ment  of  the  bi-racial  type  of  adjustment. 

Meanwhile,  and  from  a  diametrically  opposite  direction, 
the  policy  of  segregation  operated  to  build  up  an  independ 
ent  Negro  group.  The  segregation  of  the  Negroes  in  many 
of  the  relations  of  life  had,  at  the  desire  of  the  Negroes 

49McCord,  The  American  Negro  as  a  Defective,  Dependent  and  Delin 
quent,  p.  125. 

80  The  opponents  of  Mr.  Washington  deny  that  there  is  a  "scintilla 
of  evidence  to  show  that  the  increase  in  these  ventures  and  in  property 
owning  by  Negroes  is  due  solely  or  even  mainly  to  the  influence  of  in 
dustrial  and  agricultural  education."  V.  P.  Thomas,  The  Crisis,  July, 
1913,  p.  145. 

61  Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Story  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  p.  31. 

62  See  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  p.  204. 


356  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

themselves,  taken  place  long  before  the  Emancipation.  With 
the  freedom  of  the  slaves  came  more  voluntary  segregation 
and,  as  the  South  began  to  recover  from  the  financial  effects 
of  the  War  and  the  Reconstruction,  came  legal  separation 
in  more  and  more  lines.  With  the  disappearance  of  the 
older  generation  of  slaves  and  slave-masters  and  the  ap 
pearance  of  a  newer  generation  containing  many  idle,  in 
solent,  and  dangerously  criminal  Negroes,  the  legal  separa 
tion  of  the  races  was  adopted  as  a  matter  of  police  protec 
tion.  It  served  to  avoid  the  constant  conflicts  resulting 
from  the  contact  of  the  rougher  classes  of  the  two  races.53 
It  kept  apart  the  ignorant  and  the  vicious  of  the  two  races 
and  so  made  for  harmony  in  the  racial  life  of  the  com 
munity.54  Residential  segregation  always  had  been  the  rule, 
but  the  desire  to  get  away  from  the  rougher  and  more  ig 
norant  classes  and  to  be  among  the  whites  led  certain  pros 
perous  and  ambitious  Negroes  and  mulattoes  to  move  into 
white  residential  districts.  Whether  the  motives  impelling 
such  actions  on  the  part  of  the  Negroes  was  a  desire  to 
assert  their  equality  with  the  whites,  or  the  perfectly  laud 
able  desire  to  live  in  better  localities  and  to  get  their  chil 
dren  away  from  the  moral  dangers  which  surrounded  the 
predominantly  Negro  districts,  their  presence  was  equally 
offensive  to  the  white  residents.  The  uniform  result  of  such 
actions  on  the  part  of  the  Negroes  was  the  withdrawal  of 
the  whites,  the  consequent  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the 
property,  and  the  section  becoming  a  Negro  settlement. 
Legal  residential  segregation  grew  up  in  order  to  restrain, 

53  In  New  Orleans,  for  example,  where  there  existed  a  large  number 
of  free  mulattoes,  separate  accommodations  were  provided  long  before 
the  War. 

54  McCord,  The  American  Neyro  as  a  Dependent,  Defective  and  Delin 
quent,  p.  273. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         357 

not  the  mass  of  the  race  but  the  ambitious  Negroes  and 
mulattoes  who  desired  to  escape  from  the  race  and  asso 
ciate  with,  and  live  among,  the  whites. 

As  the  practice  of  racial  segregation  spread,  it  was  pres 
ently  seen  that,  in  some  ways  at  least,  it  was  proving  a 
real  help  to  the  Negroes.  It  kept  the  race  together,  pre 
vented  the  loss  by  the  race  of  its  superior  and  talented 
individuals.  It  forced  the  Negroes  back  upon  themselves, 
forced  them  to  rely  more  upon  themselves  and  less  upon 
the  whites,  and  it  forced  them  to  develop  and  to  manage 
their  own  institutions  and  to  develop  their  own  social  and 
economic  life.55  As  they  were  forced  to  become  more  self- 
dependent,  they  gained  in  self-confidence  and  consequently 
in  self-respect.  In  a  negative  way,  the  practice  of  segre 
gation  combined  with  the  industrial  and  agricultural  educa 
tional  policy  to  build  up  an  independent  and  self-reliant 
peasantry  and  middle-class  group.  Before  the  Negroes  lay 
the  greatest  economic  opportunity  ever  offered  to  the  peas 
antry  of  any  country  in  the  world.  The  educational  leaders 
sought  to  impress  this  fact  upon  the  race;  the  segregation 
policy  forced  the  Negroes  to  embrace  the  opportunity  be 
fore  them.  To  the  extent  that  the  Negroes  became  settled 
and  industrious,  they  became  prosperous.  As  they  became 
prosperous  they  became  contented,  law-abiding,  and  valu 
able  men  in  the  community.  Consequently,  the  segregation 
policy  was  further  extended  and  advocated,56  not  alone  as 
a  defensive  measure  and  because  of  the  harmony  it  gave  in 
the  affairs  of  the  races,  but  as  the  most  effective  legal 

65  E.  G.  Murphy,  The  Schools  of  the  People.  Evans,  Black  and 
White  in  the  Southern  States,  p.  156. 

66 Frequently  by  the  Negroes.  For  example:  "Let  us  as  a  race  not 
wait  for  the  Caucasian  to  force  us  but  let  us  segregate  voluntarily  in 
every  particular.  The  white  man  has  suggested  it  and  now  let  us  fol- 


358  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

method,  so  far  discovered,  to  help  the  Negroes  to  help  them 
selves. 

With  the  growth  of  a  middle-class,  chiefly  through  the 
operation  of  these  two  factors,  and  its  increase  in  numbers 
and  in  importance  in  the  affairs  of  the  race,  there  is  coming 
to  be  a  new  and  a  radically  different  type  of  adjustment 
between  the  races  in  the  South.57  This  new  adjustment 
tends  to  be  a  bi-racial  one:  a  vertical  division  on  race  lines. 
The  two  races  are  separate  in  all  those  relations  where 
opportunity  for  conflict  seems  likely  to  arise  between  indi 
vidual  members,  and  in  all  things  social  or  that  remotely 
imply  social  equality.  Their  residence  districts  are  apart. 
They  have  separate  accommodations  when  they  travel. 
Their  schools,  churches,  lodges,  and  places  of  entertainment 
and  amusement  are  separate  and  distinct.  Each  race  has 
its  own  organizations,  and  manages  its  own  affairs.  They 
cooperate  or  oppose  each  other  as  races  on  matters  affect 
ing  the  relations  of  the  races.  In  matters  of  mutual  con 
cern,  a  conference  between  the  representatives  or  leaders 
of  the  two  races  arranges  for  cooperative  action.  Each  is 
held  responsible  for  the  individual  behavior  of  the  members 
of  its  own  group.  They  may  work  for  the  same  ends,  inde 
pendently  but  cooperatively ;  except,  however,  in  the  strictly 

low  it  up.  His  prescription  [proscription?]  and  boycotting  will  help  us 
to  get  together,  if  we  have  an  ounce  of  race  pride."  The  Conservative 
Counselor,  Waco,  Texas,  9-2-1915.  See,  also,  "Editorial  Comment,"  The 
A  fro- American,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  12-11-1915. 

This  view  is  of  course  almost  as  superficial  as  that  of  the  militant 
mulattoes  who  violently  oppose  every  tendency  toward  segregation.  Both 
are  surface  views.  The  real  ground  on  which  the  policy  is  to  be  de 
fended,  from  the  Negroes'  point  of  view,  is  indicated  below.  See  pp. 
390  if.  Residential  segregation  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  a 
ruling  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  11-5-1917. 

67  The  bi-racial  adjustment  is  of  course  not  anywhere  complete;  it  is 
in  the  process  of  becoming. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         859 

business  relation  of  employer  and  employee,  the  races  need 
not  come  into  contact ;  they  remain  separate  groups.  They 
live  a  life  apart,  beside  each  other  and  yet  separate  in  all 
the  affairs  of  social  and  community  life. 

The  bi-racial  arrangement — the  separation  of  the  Negroes 
from  the  whites  and  their  independence  in  many  of  the 
affairs  of  life — created  a  need  and  supplied  a  place  for  the 
superior  men  of  the  race.  Under  the  earlier  conditions,  the 
Negroes  had  looked  to  the  whites  as  the  superior  and  edu 
cated  class  and  depended  upon  them  for  advice  and  lead 
ership;  they  uniformly  preferred  the  services  of  white  pro 
fessional  and  business  men  to  the  services  of  the  professional 
and  business  men  of  their  own  race.  To  the  extent  that  the 
races  became  separated  and  the  Negroes  gained  in  inde 
pendence  and  developed  a  sense  of  racial  pride  and  self- 
reliance,  there  was  a  place  for  an  educated  class  within  the 
race ;  there  was  a  need  for  teachers  and  preachers,  for  physi 
cians  and  lawyers,  for  business  men  and  entertainers,  and 
for  all  the  host  of  other  parasitic  and  semi-parasitic  classes 
that  go  to  make  up  a  modern  community.  With  the  rise 
of  a  middle-class,  the  race  was  able  to  support  a  profes 
sional  and  leisure  class ;  previously  the  educated  Negro  was 
an  idler  and  a  parasite.  The  isolation  of  the  race  forced 
the  Negroes  to  depend  upon  their  own  educated  men  and 
so  made  a  place  for  such  men. 

Within  the  Negro  group  and  catering  to  their  own  peo 
ple,  the  men  superior  by  nature,  by  virtue  of  education, 
because  of  special  training,  because  of  natural  shrewdness, 
because  of  the  possession  of  property  or  by  virtue  of  the 
possession  of  the  elements  of  natural  leadership,  became  the 
leaders  of  the  race.  The  separation  of  the  races  freed  the 
Negro  professional  and  business  men  from  the  competition 
of  the  better  trained  and  more  efficient  white  men  and  con- 


360  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

sequently  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  rise  out  of  all  pro 
portion  to  their  native  ability  and  training.  The  plane  of 
competition  became  one  on  which  they  could  hope  to  suc 
ceed.  The  older — the  slave  and  reconstruction  plan  of  ad 
justment — was  an  accommodation  on  horizontal  lines.  The 
white  man  was  at  the  top,  the  black  man  was  at  the  bot 
tom.  It  was  a  caste  distinction  that  prevented  the  rise  of 
the  capable  individual  out  of  his  group.  In  the  newer  ar 
rangement,  the  opportunity  to  rise  was  limited  only  by 
the  ability  and  the  industry  of  the  individual  man.  There 
was  no  superior  caste  above  him. 

As  has  been  previously  pointed  out  in  detail,  the  superior 
men  of  the  race  are,  with  scarcely  the  proverbial  exception, 
mulattoes.58  The  segregation  of  the  Negroes,  the  rise  of 
a  middle-class,  and  the  consequent  bi-racial  adjustment  of 
the  races  thus  have  made  a  place  and  furnished  a  vocation 
for  the  mulattoes.  Unable  to  escape  the  race  and  unable 
to  constitute  a  caste  above  the  race,  they  remained  with 
the  race  and  became  its  real  leaders.59  They  are  the  pro 
fessional  and  business  men  of  the  race.  They  are  the 
leaders  in  all  the  racial  and  inter-racial  affairs.  The  bi- 
racial  arrangement  gives  the  mulatto  the  opportunity  for 
a  useful  life  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  allows  him  to  remain 

08  J.  R.  Brackett,  The  Negro  in  Maryland,  p.  94. 

69 ".  .  .  Although  resenting  a  classification  which  they  consider  illogi 
cal  and  unnatural,  they  have  never  been  given  any  choice  in  the  matter 
and  they  have,  at  last,  come  to  acquiesce  in  the  arrangement.  What 
is  the  result?  It  is  leading  to  the  unification  of  all  A  fro- Americans  as 
no  personal  inclination  or  mutual  persuasion  could  have  done.  The 
'colored'  (mulatto)  class,  which  contains  the  most  intelligent  and  ambi 
tious  men  of  the  race,  has  deliberately  thrown  its  lot  with  the  black, 
and  set  itself  to  the  task  of  educating  and  training  them  for  the  great 
struggle  which  they  believe  is  to  come.  .  .  ."  W.  P.  Livingstone,  "The 
West  Indian  and  the  American  Negro,"  North  American  Review,  Vol. 
185,  p.  646. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         361 

superior  to  his  black  fellows. 

These  Southern  mulatto  leaders,  however,  are  men  who, 
at  least  outwardly,  consider  themselves  Negroes.60  They 
are  men  who  have  given  up,  in  practice  if  not  in  theory, 
the  hopeless  struggle  for  social  recognition  by  the  whites 
and  identified  themselves  with  the  black  group.61  Their 
status  is  fixed ;  they  are  members  of  the  Negro  race.  Social 
equality  with  the  whites  is  out  of  the  question  and  the  de 
nial  of  it  ceases  to  disturb  them.  The  success  they  make 
in  life  is  in  another  direction  and  the  amount  of  it  depends 
upon  themselves.  They  are  men  who  have  concealed,  if  they 
have  not  succeeded  in  overcoming,  their  aversion  for  the 
black  man.  They  do  not  openly  flaunt  their  superiority 
because  of  their  white  blood,  and  they  find  their  life  and 
their  work  among  their  darker  and  more  backward  fellows. 
The  mulattoes,  for  the  most  part  Southern  mulattoes,  have, 
in  this  new  adjustment  of  the  races,  found  their  place  as 
the  real  and  natural  leaders  of  the  race.  They  are  the 
men  who  teach  the  black  man  in  the  schools  and  in  the 
Negro  colleges,  who  preach  to  him  from  the  pulpits,  who 
manage  his  banks  and  business  enterprises,  who  rise  to  prom 
inence  in  all  the  social,  political,  and  economic  affairs  of 

80  "I  love  my  people  and  prefer  to  live  among  them.  I  am  not  ashamed 
of  being  a  Negro."  C.  V.  Roman,  "Racial  Self-respect  and  Racial 
Antagonism,"  Atlanta  Congress,  1913,  p.  445. 

61  The  condition  of  the  mulatto  or  educated  Negro  who  has  not  yet 
reached  this  point  in  his  development  appears  everywhere  in  the  writings 
of  the  mulattoes.  For  example:  ".  .  .  there  is  to  my  mind  no  more 
pathetic  side  to  this  many  sided  question  than  the  isolated  position  into 
which  are  forced  the  very  colored  people  who  most  need  and  could  best 
appreciate  sympathetic  cooperation;  [the  educated  and  upper  classes] 
and  their  position  grows  tragic  when  the  effort  is  made  to  couple  them, 
whether  or  no,  with  the  Negroes  of  the  first  class  I  mentioned  [the 
lower  classes]."  Johnson,  The  Autobiography  of  an  Ex-colored  Man, 
p.  78. 


362  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

the  race.  They,  too,  are  the  men  who  rob  and  defraud  hi  n 
in  the  lodges,  who  grow  wealthy,  through  appealing  to  the 
Negro's  desire  to  be  like  the  white  man,  with  nostrums  io 
blanch  the  skin  and  straighten  the  hair,  who  gain  wealih 
and  distinction  among  their  race  by  fostering,  and  caterirg 
to,  the  Negro's  morbid  interest  in  and  superstitious  fear 
of  death  and  love  of  vulgar  funeral  display.  But  whether 
they  guide  and  help  the  black  man  or  fatten  on  his  gulli 
bility,  they  are  in  every  respect  the  prominent  men  of  the 
race  and  the  leaders  in  the  race's  social  affairs.  Whether 
they  are  engaged  in  robbing  the  black  man,  preaching  io 
him,  healing  his  sick  or  burying  his  dead,  and  in  spite  of 
their  concealed  dislike  and  their  contempt  for  the  degraded 
black  man,  the  mulattoes  are  endeavoring  to  raise  him  to 
j  a  higher  mental,  moral,  and  industrial  plane. 

The  organization  takes  on  the  form  of  a  primary  group 
relation.  From  the  similarity  of  life  and  activities,  comes 
a  similarity  of  sentiments  and  ideas.  The  mulattoes  and 
other  superior  men  become  an  integral  part  of  the  race,  de 
sirous  of  a  respected  place  in  the  thoughts  of  the  group, 
and  ambitious  for  an  honored  place  in  its  counsels.  The 
mulatto  feels  himself  in  alliance  with  the  group  and  in  the 
cooperation  of  common  activities  there  arises  a  sympa 
thetic  understanding  and  appreciation  which  fuses  the  mu 
latto,  in  sentiments  and  attitudes,  with  the  larger  whole. 
He  is  identified  with  the  black  group,  feels  the  mute  long 
ing  of  the  common  folk,  feels  himself  a  part  of  it,  is  moulded 
by  it,  and  comes,  little  by  little,  to  realize  himself  as  a 
factor  in  the  common  life  and  purpose  of  the  group.  He 
ceases  to  be,  in  thought  and  feeling,  a  stranger  among  his 
people ;  he  learns  to  appreciate  them,  ceases  to  be  ashamed 
of  his  relationship  to  them,  ceases  to  resent  being  classed 
with  them.  Their  problems  become  his  problems ;  their  life, 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         368 

his  life.  The  mulatto  thus  ceases  to  be  a  problem  within 
a  problem;  he  becomes  a  functioning  unit  in  the  social  life 
of  an  evolving  people. 

In  the  South,  as  elsewhere  among  the  Negro  people 
ulattoes  enjoy  a  prestige  because  of  their  colors 

n^HHj^grrppt  th^m  as  supenrjr^I^  The  condi 
tions  of  life  for  the  Negroes  are  decidedly  easier  in  the 
South  than  in  other  sections  of  the  country  and  this  is 
especially  the  case  for  the  raulattoes  and  other  men  of  busi 
ness  and  professional  training.62  To  the  extent  that  they 
do  a  work  for  the  good  of  the  race  and  live  an  honest  and 
industrious  life,  they  are  helped  by  the  white  man  and  do 
not  have  to  meet  his  competition.  Race  prejudice  and  dis 
crimination  are  less  clearly  manifested 63  than  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  struggle  for  professional  exist 
ence  is  somewhat  more  severe,  and  where  the  tolerance  of 
racial  shortcomings  is  less  evident.  There  is  no  lack  of 

"  It  is  to  be  remembered,  of  course,  that  in  competition,  the  Southern 
trained  Negro  has  proven  his  equality  if  not  his  superiority  to  the  North 
ern  trained  Negro.  See  G.  E.  Haynes,  The  Xegro  at  Work  in  Xew 
York  City,  pp.  50  ff. 

68  E.  R.  Turner,  The  Xegro  in  Pennsylvania,  p.  149. 
Editorial,  The  Free  Lance,  11-6-1915. 

"Despite  evidences  of  racial  friction  which  crop  out  here  and  there, 
the  relations  existing  between  the  individual  Negro  and  the  individual 
white  man  are  often  closer  and  better  understood  and  more  sympa 
thetic  than  those  obtaining  in  any  community  outside  of  the  South." 
Booker  T.  Washington,  The  Southern  Workman,  quoted  from  the  Chi 
cago  Defender,  12-19-1914. 

"For  years  after  the  war  the  North  went  into  a  frenzy,  especially 
during  political  campaigns,  over  outrages,  real  and  alleged,  upon  their 
colored  fellow-citizens  in  the  South.  In  the  North  to-day  the  Negro 
has  less  chance  to  gain  a  livelihood  above  the  very  humblest  levels  than 
he  had  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  only  in  rare  instances  does  education 
beyond  the  prime  essentials  benefit  him  in  his  struggles  upward." 
Boston  Traveller,  11-15-1915. 


364  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

opportunity.  There  are  fewer  men  in  proportion  to  the  num 
ber  of  the  race  who  are  trained  and  it  is  proportionately 
easier  for  the  men  of  a  little  training  and  ability  to  rise 
to  positions  of  importance  within  the  group.  The  superior 
education  of  the  mulattoes  qualifies  them  for  leadership; 
their  superior  ambition  and  greater  self-confidence  pushes 
them  to  the  front.  The  mulatto,  even  though  only  slightly 
superior,  is  assured  of  success  once  he  has  cast  his  lot  with 
the  Negro  people.  His  role  on  the  Southern  situation  is 
the  role  of  leadership. 

The  role  of  leadership  is,  of  course,  a  peculiarly  difficult 
one;  the  Negroes  do  not  readily  follow  their  own  best  leaders. 
The  mass  of  the  Negroes  are  ignorant,  untrained  in  self- 
direction,  and  not  awake  to  the  importance  of  self-help  and 
cooperative  association.  They  are  pretty  generally  unre 
liable  and  subconsciously  recognize  their  own  unreliability; 
bitter  experience  has  made  them  more  suspicious  and  dis 
trustful  of  their  own  race  than  of  the  white.  Petty  jeal 
ousies  among  the  leaders  themselves  are  continually  break 
ing  out  into  factional  strife.  Public  spirit  and  pride  of  race 
is  still  more  a  hope  of  certain  individuals  than  a  realiza 
tion  of  the  masses.  It  is  the  problem  of  the  leaders  of  the 
race  to  organize  this  ignorant  and  distrustful  peasant  peo 
ple,  replace  a  bizarre  idea  of  education  by  saner  ones, 
teach  them  the  need  of  industry  and  morality,  and  lead 
them  to  a  respect  for,  and  a  belief  in,  their  own  race. 

In  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the  Negroes  are 
relatively  less  numerous,  they  have  in  general  not  been 
legally  assigned  a  definite  racial  status  in  the  community 
life.  No  special  provisions  have  been  made  for  their  edu 
cation.  There  are  no  restrictions  on  their  place  of  resi 
dence.  They  are  free  to  intermarry  and  otherwise  associate 
with  individuals  of  a  different  racial  extraction  to  the  extent 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         365 

of  their  desire  and  opportunity.  There  has  been  a  refusal 
on  the  part  of  the  white  people  to  recognize  publicly  the 
presence  of  the  Negroes  as  constituting  a  problem  distinct 
from  other  social  problems  of  the  community  life.64  The 
policy  has  been  rather  to  ignore  their  presence  and  to  leave 
them  to  accommodate  themselves  individually  as  best  they 
may  to  the  social  situation.  Ostensibly  at  least,  they  stand 
on  the  same  legal  and  social  footing  as  other  members  of 
the  population. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  absence  of  any  restrictive  or 
other  legislation  applying  particularly  to  the  Negro  people, 
their  greater  individual  freedom  of  choice  and  action,  there 
is  a  less  definite  and  uniform  accommodation  between  the 
races  and  more  of  individual  variation  from  the  usual  mode. 
The  conditions  of  life,  however,  are  markedly  more  difficult. 
There  is  more  of  prejudice  and  active  discrimination  in 
economic  and  industrial  relations.  The  individual  relations 
between  members  of  the  races  are  in  general  marked  by 
less  of  personal  friendliness;  there  is  not  the  good-natured 
expectation  of  inefficiency  and  toleration  of  shiftlessness 
which  marks  the  relations  of  the  races  in  the  South.65  The 
Negro  is  in  individual  competition  with  men  of  the  other 
race,  and,  in  general,  he  has  to  measure  up  to  their  stand 
ard  of  efficiency  and  reliability  in  order  to  secure  and 
retain  employment.  Among  the  Negro  people  of  the  North, 
therefore,  there  is  more  failure,  dissatisfaction,  complaint, 
more  bitterness,  more  enforced  idleness,  more  distress,  pov 
erty,  and  crime  than  in  those  sections  of  the  country  where 
the  Negroes  do  not  come  into  direct  individual  competition 

64  It  has  not,  of  course,  been  possible  to  live  up  to  any  such  theory. 
See  the  Negro  Year  Book,  pp.  365-67. 

"This  is  due  in  large  part  to  the  fact  that  in  the  North  the  Negro 
is  in  the  city,  whereas  in  the  South  he  is  more  generally  a  rural  man. 


366  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

with  better  trained  and  more  energetic  and  ambitious  rivals. 
Among  those  who  have  succeeded,  however,  there  are  more] 
examples  of  conspicuous  individual  success,  as  measured 
by  white  standards,  than  where  the  competition  is  racial 
and  not  individual.  The  struggle  for  success  is  more  diffi 
cult,  the  failures  are  more  numerous,  but  the  rewards  or 
success  are  greater. 

There  is  among  the  Negroes  in  the  North  an  absence  of 
unity  and  race  solidarity.  The  numbers  of  the  race  are 
relatively  small,  widely  scattered,  unorganized,  and  without 
a  common  interest.  It  is  predominantly  an  urban  pop  ila- 
tion  and  stands  for  the  most  part  as  a  population  of  un 
skilled  laborers  dependent  for  the  means  of  livelihood  u  0011 
white  employers.66  Their  tendency  to  congregate  in  one 
or  a  few  sections  of  the  cities  and  towns  gives  an  appearance 
of  unity  which  in  reality  does  not  exist;  the  residential 
segregation  is  a  matter  of  economic  necessity  rather  than 
a  matter  of  choice.  The  race  is  divided  into  innumerable 
antagonistic  groups,  societies,  orders,  factions,  cliques,  and 
what  not,  endless  in  number  and  puzzling  in  complexity, 
whose  mutual  jealousy  and  distrust  prevent  any  united,  co 
operative  action.  There  is  no  leadership  that  has  any  con 
siderable  following  and  no  program  for  racial  progress  that 
has  the  assent  of  more  than  a  faction  of  the  Negro  group; 
there  is  nothing  to  hold  the  various  factions  together  and 
the  group  is  without  any  semblance  of  organized  unity. 

The  superior  men  of  the  race,  even  more  than  in  the 
South,  are  mulattoes.  There  is  not,  certainly,  always  a 
sharp  and  complete  separation;  there  are  occasional  blacks 
among  the  educated  section  and  by  no  means  all  the  mu- 

68 See,  for  example,  A.  P.  Comstock,  "Chicago  Housing  Conditions: 
VI.  The  Problem  of  the  Negro,"  The  American  Journal  of  Sociology, 
Vol.  18,  pp.  241-57. 


R6le  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         567 

lattoes  are  in  the  non-laboring  classes.  But  the  occupa 
tional  differentiation  is  pretty  complete.  Speaking  gener 
ally,  the  successful  group  is  a  light-colored  group,  while 
the  great  uneducated  mass  is  dark.  Moreover,  the  individ 
uals  who  have  risen  markedly  above  their  fellows  in  suc 
cess  in  any  line  are,  with  rarely  an  exception,  mulattoes. 
The  successful  professional  and  business  man  are  in  almost 
every  case  men  of  mixed  blood  and  generally  men  of  rela 
tively  little  Negro  admixture.  The  same  thing  is  true  of 
the  men  prominent  in  every  line  of  work.  In  education,  the 
mulattoes  are  almost  the  only  members  of  the  Negro  com 
munity  who  avail  themselves  of  the  school  opportunities 
beyond  the  legal  minimum.  The  prominent  and  educated 
men  and  women  of  the  race  are  mulattoes  and  the  mulatto 
group  as  a  whole  occupies  a  higher  economic  and  intellec 
tual  status  than  do  the  darker  colored  groups. 

The  Northern  mulattoes  are,  however,  in  spite  of  their 
superior  education  and  position,  without  a  definite  role  in 
the  inter-racial  life  of  the  community.  More  than  in  the 
Southern  section  of  the  country,  the  mulattoes  are  separated 
in  fact  and  in  sympathy  from  the  mass  of  the  race.  They 
are  proud  of  their  European  blood,  their  smoother  features, 
their  "better"  hair  and  their  higher  economic  status;  they 
are  not  always  careful  to  conceal  the  fact.  Frequently 
they  live  apart  from  the  Negro  community,  find  their  social 
life  among  others  of  their  kind,  attend  white  churches  or 
form  congregations  of  their  own  class  and  color.67  The 
upper  class  mulattoes  are  frequently  without  much  acquaint 
ance  with  the  real  Negroes.  In  their  professional  or  busi 
ness  life,  they  are  separated  from  the  mass  of  the  race  and 
come  often  into  very  little  contact  with  them  even  in  a  busi- 

wSee  E.  H.  Abbott,  "The  South  and  the  Negro,"  The  Outlook,  Vol. 
77,  pp.  367  if. 


368  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

ness  way.  Their  idea  of  the  Negro  and  their  attitude  to 
ward  him,  is  the  idea  and  the  attitude  of  the  white  man. 
The  attitude  is  one  of  more  or  less  kindly  toleration  rnd 
mild  contempt  which  changes  to  active  discrimination  and 
positive  hatred  when  the  Negro  assumes  the  attitude  of  an 
equal  and  seeks  the  privilege  of  social  equality.  In  their 
public  utterances  the  Negro  may  be  idealized,  but  there  is 
no  desire  or  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  mulatto  to  have 
any  intimate  association  with  him. 

Yet  the  mulattoes  assume  the  role  of  spokesman  for  the 
race;  they  undertake  to  represent  the  Negro  and  to  speak 
for  him.  Their  superior  education,  their  higher  economic 
status  as  well  as  their  greater  individual  success,  and  their 
more  prominent  position  give  plausibility  to  their  assump 
tion  of  leadership  and  allow  them,  rather  than  men  who  are 
closer  to  the  race  and  better  able  to  voice  the  feelings  and 
attitudes  of  the  inarticulate  mass,  to  get  themselves  accepted 
as  representatives  of  the  Negroes.  They  appear  as  cham 
pions  of  the  Negro  at  all  times  when  there  is  profit  or  noto 
riety  to  be  gained  by  so  doing.  They  make  incendiary 
speeches,  draw  up  petitions  and  protests,  appear  before  leg 
islative  and  executive  committees  as  the  representatives  of  a 
people  they  only  imperfectly  represent.  They  are  the  men 
Mr.  Washington  had  in  mind  when  he  wrote:  68 

.  .  .  there  are  others  who  claim  that  the  Negro  is 
too  submissive.  The  latter  insist  that,  if  he  had  the 
courage  to  stand  up  and  denounce  his  detractors  in  the 
same  harsh  and  bitter  terms  that  these  persons  use  to-i 
ward  him,  in  a  short  time  he  would  win  the  respect' 
of  the  world,  and  the  only  obstacle  to  his  progress 
would  be  removed. 

It  is  interesting,  sometimes  amusing,  and  sometimes 

88  The  Story  of  the  Negro,  Vol.  1,  pp.  190-91. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         369 

even  pathetic,  to  note  the  conception  of  "bravery"  and 
"courage"  which  some  colored  men,  who  put  their  faith 
in  this  solution  of  the  Negro  problem,  occasionally  ap 
ply  to  other  members  of  their  race.  For  a  long  time 
after  freedom  came,  and  the  same  is  not  infrequently 
true  at  the  present  time,  any  black  man  who  was  will 
ing,  either  in  print  or  in  public  speech,  to  curse  and 
abuse  the  white  man,  easily  gained  for  himself  a  repu 
tation  of  great  courage.  He  might  spend  thirty  min 
utes  or  an  hour  once  a  year  in  that  kind  of  "vindica 
tion"  of  his  race,  but  he  got  the  reputation  of  being 
an  exceedingly  brave  man.  Another  man,  who  worked 
patiently  and  persistently  for  years  in  a  Negro  school, 
depriving  himself  of  many  of  the  comforts  and  necessi 
ties  of  life,  in  order  to  perform  a  service  which  would 
uplift  his  race,  gained  no  reputation  for  courage.  On 
the  contrary,  he  was  likely  to  be  denounced  as  a  coward 
by  the  "heroes,"  because  he  chose  to  do  his  work  with 
out  cursing,  without  abuse,  and  without  complaint. 

The  larger  part  of  the  present-day  discussion  of  inter- 
race  matters,  the  agitations  for  social  and  political  rights 
and  privileges,  the  fulminations  against  discriminations, 
the  exaggerations  of  real  and  fancied  wrongs,  is  not  the 
work  of  Negroes.  It  is  a  small,  widely  scattered,  light- 
colored  and  largely  deracialized  group  of  mulattoes  who  have 
not  found  their  place  in  the  bi-racial  community  life — who 
refuse  to  be  Negroes  and  are  refused  the  opportunity  to  be 
white — whose  sentiments  and  attitudes  find  expression  in 
the  present-day  agitations.  The  bitter,  abusive  tone  of  so  \/ 
much  present-day  Negro  literature  does  not  voice  the  atti-  £ 
tude  of  the  Negro ;  the  real  Negro  is  remarkably  free  fromA 
titterness.^  The  rank  and  file  are  intimately  concerned  with 
the  daily  problem  of  earning  a  living;  they  accept  the  social 
situation  and  their  place  therein  more  as  a  matter  of  fact 
than  as  a  hardship.  The  abstract  rights  for  which  certain 


370  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

individuals  and  groups  within  the  race  contend  interest 
them  very  little  or  not  at  all.  The  Negroes  have  given  very 
little  support  to  the  so-called  radical  movements.69  A  na 
tive  common  sense  leads  them  to  a  half-conscious  recognition 
of  the  futility  of  systematically  antagonizing  the  race  upon 
which  they  are  so  largely  dependent.  The  trend  of  senti 
ment  has  been  away  from,  rather  than  towards,  an  advocacy 
of  rights  and  privileges  which  they  are  not  in  a  position  to. 
demand  and  which  the  opposite  race  seems  less  and  less  in 
clined  to  bestow  upon  them.  There  has  been  a  pretty  gen 
eral  acceptance  by  the  more  intelligent  Negroes  in  all  sec 
tions  of  the  country  of  the  Southern  point  of  view.70 

The  agitations  of  the  mulatto  groups  and  individuals 
are,  for  obvious  reasons,  carried  on  in  the  name  of  the 
Negro,  not  in  the  name  of  the  mulatto.  The  ends  to  be 
reached  are  such  as  concern  the  real  Negroes  very  little. 
The  agitations  voice  the  bitterness  of  the  superior  mulat- 
toes,  of  the  deracialized  men  of  education,  culture,  and  re 
finement  who  resent  and  rebel  against  the  intolerant  social 
edict  that  excludes  them  from  white  society  and  classes 
them  with  the  despised  race.  The  demands  resolve  them 
selves  in  last  analysis  into  a  demand  that  all  race  distinc 
tions  be  blotted  out  and  that  each  man  be  accepted  on  the 
basis  of  his  individual  merit  irrespective  of  his  race  or 

68  The  National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Colored  Peo 
ple,  the  chief  present-day  association  concerned  with  the  political  rights 
and  the  social  ambitions  of  the  Negroes,  claims  a  membership  of  only 
9,500.  Of  this  membership  many,  perhaps  the  great  majority,  are  white 
persons.  Certainly  the  organization  has  always  been  financed  and  largely 
managed  by  white  persons.  See  The  Crisis,  3-1916,  p.  225. 

70  Many  leading  Negroes  who  were  earlier  identified  with  the  move 
ment  in  opposition  to  the  policies  of  Booker  T.  Washington,  later  went 
over  to  the  constructive  point  of  view.  See,  for  e.g.,  John  Daniels,  In 
Freedom's  Birthplace,  p.  128. 


Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         371 

color.71  The  result  of  the  adoption  of  such  a  policy  would 
be,  of  course,  to  allow  the  exceptional  men  of  the  race,  that 
is  the  mulattoes,  to  escape  from  it  and  be  accepted  by  and 
absorbed  into  the  white  race.  The  demands  of  the  militant 
mulattoes  thus  amount  to  a  plea  for  special  privilege ;  it 
is  a  plea  for  themselves  and  not  for  the  Negroes.  They  ask 
the  opportunity  to  escape  from  the  race  toward  which  they 
feel  much  the  same  prejudice  as  does  the  white  man.  They 
are  Negroes  only  by  compulsion. 

The  inter-racial  situation  in  the  North  is  thus,  in  very 
large  part,  a  caste  arrangement.  The  mulattoes  are  the 
superior  men  and  form,  or  tend  to  form,  a  separate  and  ex 
clusive  class  above  the  race.  They  assume  the  role  of 
spokesman  for  the  race  but  they  are  not  an  integral  part  of 
it  as  are  the  mulatto  leaders  of  the  South.  The  Negroes 
resent,  more  or  less,  the  mulattoes'  assumption  of  superior 
ity  and  their  presuming  to  speak  for  a  race  with  whom 
they  neither  live  nor  associate.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  the 
desire  of  every  ambitious  Negro  to  secure  admittance  to 
the  more  exclusive  circles  and  to  escape  from  the  black 
group.  The  mulattoes  are  rather  outside  the  race,  above 
it.  They  have  not  given  up  the  hope  of  equality  with  the 
whites ;  they  are  not  satisfied  to  be  Negroes  and  to  find  their 
life  and  their  work  among  the  members  of  the  race.  They 
are  contemptuous  of  the  blacks  who  are  socially  below  them 
and  envious  of  the  whites  who  are  socially  above  them.  The 
accommodation  of  the  races  is  on  horizontal  lines  with  the 
educated  and  light-colored  mulattoes  standing  between  the 
blacks  and  the  whites. 

The  arrangement,  however,  seems  to  lack  the  elements 
of  permanence.  The  realization  of  the  mulattoes'  ambi- 
"See.Jgr_example.  "Editorial."  Thp  ari*b,  3-1914,  pp,  igg-ftr  Also, 
Katharine  B.  Davis,  The  Crisis,  6-1914,  pp.  83-84, 


872  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

tion  is  dependent  upon  a  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  white  population.  Their  recognition  of  the  mulatto 
as  superior  to  the  black  Negro  would  insure  the  perma 
nence  of  the  mulatto  caste;  it  would  give  it  a  recognized 
place  in  the  society.72  Their  granting  of  the  demands  for 
a  complete  removal  of  all  distinctions  based  on  race  or 
color  would  allow  the  escape  from  the  race  of  the  superior 
and  light  colored  individuals.73  But  curiously  enough  the 
rebellious  attitude  of  the  militant  mulattoes  against  the 
habitual  attitude  of  the  white  group  and  their  agitations 
against  discriminations,  whether  carried  on  by  themselves 
or  by  their  white  sympathizers,  which  have  for  their  real 
though  seldom  openly  avowed  and  sometimes  not  consciously 
understood  purpose  the  allowing  of  the  superior,  educated 
mulattoes  to  escape  from  the  Negro  race  and  to  be  absorbed 
into  the  white  race — their  protests  and  complaints  and  cam 
paigns  of  bitterness  and  abuse — have  an  effect  quite  differ 
ent  from  that  desired.  It  tends  to  defeat  its  own  object74 
and  works  ultimately  to  the  profit  of  the  Negro  group  as  a 
whole  rather  than  to  that  of  the  protesting  group.  Instead 
of  influencing  the  white  man  to  recognize  the  mulattoes  as 
a  superior  type  of  man  and  to  accept  them  on  a  rating  dif 
ferent  from  that  on  which  he  accepts  the  mass  of  the  race 
— as  an  individual  regardless  of  race  or  color — the  effect 
is  to  identify  the  complaining  individuals  more  closely  with 
the  masses  of  the  race;  it  tends  to  solidify  the  race  and, 
in  the  thinking  of  the  white  man,  to  class  the  agitators  with 
it.  Its  effect  is  not  to  break  down  the  white  man's  antipathy 
and  prejudice,  but  to  make  the  feeling  more  acute  and  to 

72  The  Jamaican  solution  of  the  race  problem.    See  pp.  331-35  above. 
"The  Brazilian  solution  of  the  problem.     See  pp.  320-24  above. 
74  A  fact  frequently  recognized  by  the  Negroes  themselves.     See,  for 
e.g.,  The  Kansas  (City)  Elevator  (A  Negro  Paper),  2-2-1916. 


,    Role  of  the  Mulatto  in  the  United  States         373 

make  more  conscious  and  distinct  the  determination  of  the 
white  people  to  preserve  their  ideals  of  racial  and  social 
purity.75  It  results  in  a  stricter  and  a  more  conscious 
and  purposeful  drawing  of  the  color  line  and  a  drawing  of 
the  line  where  it  had  previously  not  been  drawn.  In  the 
effort  to  escape  the  race,  the  mulattoes  become  more  than 
ever  identified  with  it.76  The  segregation  policy  which  ex 
ists  in  all  lines  everywhere  in  the  South  and  less  openly 
and  frankly  but  frequently  not  less  effectively  in  the  North 
wherever  the  Negroes  are  numerous  and  troublesome,  is  in 
large  part  a  reaction  on  the  part  of  the  white  people  against 
the  militant  mulattoes'  efforts  to  achieve  social  equality 
with  the  whites. 

Both  the  mulattoes  and  the  Negroes  stand  to  profit  in 
the  end  by  the  agitation  of  the  radical  mulatto  group  for 
social  and  class  recognition.  The  struggle  for  abstract 
rights  is  not  productive  of  any  important  results  in  the 
way  of  removing  racial  prejudice  or  social  discrimination; 
it  has  rather  the  contrary  tendency.  But  it  serves  to  iden 
tify  the  mulatto  with  the  race  and  this  is  an  advantage 
both  to  the  black  and  to  the  yellow  man.  The  black  Negroes 
are  the  gainers  by  having  their  natural  .leaders  thrust, 
even  though  it  be  against  their  will,  back  upon  the  race. 
The  mulattoes  are  gamers  in  that  they  are  thus  forced  to 
see  and  to  embrace  the  great  opportunity  which  the  pres 
ence  of  the  people  of  their  own  race  affords  them  for  a 
useful  and  a  valuable  life  of  real  leadership.  The  horizon- 

T5  "Race  Separation  Without  Discrimination,"  Outlook,  Vol.  86,  p.  576. 

"Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  p.  208. 

"...  I  am  in  grave  doubt  as  to  whether  the  greater  part  of  the  fric 
tion  in  the  South  is  caused  by  the  whites  having  a  natural  antipathy 
to  Negroes  as  a  race,  or  an  acquired  antipathy  to  Negroes  in  certain 
relations  to  themselves."  Johnson,  The  Autobiography  of  an  Ex-colored 
Man,  p.  78. 


374  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

tal  accommodation — the  caste  system — of  the  North  seems 
destined  ultimately  to  transform  itself,  as  the  earlier  caste 
system  of  the  South  has  already  largely  done,  into  a  ver 
tical  accommodation— a  bi-racial  system. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

SUMMARY:  PRESENT  TENDENCIES 

IN  summarizing  this  study,  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  the  fact  that  it  has  had  to  do  with  the  mulatto  as  a 
social  group  rather  than  as  a  biological  type.  Mixture 
of  blood,  however  important  or  unimportant  it  may  be  in 
itself,  has  not  been  the  subject  of  inquiry  and  there  is  no 
assumption  concerning  its  good  or  ill  effects.  But  mixture 
of  blood  has  been  made  the  basis  of  class  and  caste  distinc 
tions.  As  a  result  of  these  distinctions — and  possibly  be 
cause  of  their  mixed  ethnic  origin — various  groups,  physi 
cally  distinguishable  because  of  their  mixed  ancestry,  have 
appeared,  manifest  a  peculiar  psychology  and  play  a  dis 
tinctive  role  in  various  inter-racial  situations.  It  is  with 
the  status  of  one  of  these  groups — the  mulatto  in  the  United 
States — with  which  this  study  has  had  principally  to  do. 
Without  predicating  or  assuming  anything  with  regard  to 
the  inherent  mental  superiority,  inferiority,  or  equality  of 
the  members  of  the  mixed-blood  group,  as  compared  with 
either  element  of  their  ethnic  ancestry,  inquiry  was  made 
concerning  their  origin  and  increase  in  numbers,  their  sta 
tus  in  the  general  social  situation,  and  their  role  in  the 
inter-racial  community  life.  So  far  as  there  has  been  any 
unavoidable  presupposition  concerning  inherent  mental  ra 
cial  capacity,  it  has  been  the  presupposition  of  approxi 
mately  equal  mental  possibility  among  the  various  human 
types  and  that  such  inequalities  as  may  be  found  existent, 

375 


376  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

culturally  or   otherwise,  are  rationally   explainable  on   the 
assumption  of  inferior  racial  opportunity. 

As  preliminary  to  the  main  topic  of  inquiry,  a  survey 
was  made  of  the  chief  of  the  mixed-blood  groups  which  have 
appeared  in  other  bi-racial  situations.  This  survey  was 
necessarily  brief  and,  owing  to  the  scanty,  defective  and 
frequently  contradictory  nature  of  the  data  available  con 
cerning  these  groups,  the  conclusions  are  highly  tentative. 
In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  mixed-blood  indi 
viduals  have  appeared  everywhere  when  two  racial  groups 
representing  different  cultural  stages  have  been  brought 
into  contact.  The  size  of  these  mixed-blood  groups  seems 
to  have  been  dependent  upon  the  races  in  contact,  the  rela 
tive  numbers  of  the  advanced  and  backward  groups,  the 
presence  or  absence  of  women  of  the  advanced  group  and 
the  class  of  the  advanced  in  contact  with  the  backward 
race.  These  mixed-blood  groups  are  everywhere  the  result 
of  illicit  relations  between  the  men  of  the  superior  and  the 
women  of  the  inferior  group.  Everywhere  the  women  of 
lower  races,  if  not  actually  seeking  sexual  relations  with 
the  men  of  the  advanced  race,  nowhere  show  any  pronounced 
repugnance  to  such  association.  The  mixed-bloods  as  a 
group  everywhere  have  formed,  or  tended  to  form,  or  been 
formed,  into  a  separate  class  or  caste  standing  somewhere 
between  the  two  parent  races.  Judged  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  superior  race,  they  have  reached  everywhere  a 
social  position  superior  to  that  of  the  mother  race  and 
nowhere  have  they  achieved  a  position  of  equality  with  the 
advanced  group.  The  superior  individuals  who  have  ap 
peared  among  the  lower  racial  groups  have  been,  almost 
without  exception,  members  of  this  mixed-blood  class.  The 
ambition  of  the  mixed-bloods  seems  everywhere  an  ambition 
to  be  accepted  into  the  advanced  race  and  to  escape  from 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  377 

the  lower  group.  Their  actual  role  in  the  inter-racial  sit 
uation  is  consequently  dependent  upon  the  attitude  of  the 
dominant  group.  Where  no  social  color  line  has  been  for 
mally  drawn  against  them,  they  have  tended  to  identify 
themselves  with  the  superior  race  and  themselves  to  draw  a 
color  line  against  the  lower  race  or  else  to  serve  as  a 
physiological  tie  between  the  extremes  of  the  population 
during  the  process  of  its  reduction  to  a  mongrel  unity. 
Where  a  color  line  has  been  drawn  against  them  by  the 
superior  group  in  the  population,  they  everywhere  have 
tended  to  form  an  intermediate  caste  in  the  population. 
Where  this  caste  has  been  more  or  less  frankly  recognized, 
it  serves  as  a  harmonizing  group  between  the  population 
extremes.  Where  it  has  not  been  recognized  by  the  superior 
race,  the  caste  seldom  has  been  able  to  maintain  itself  and 
the  mixed-blood  individuals  tend  to  unite  their  interests 
with,  and  become  an  upper-class  among,  the  lower  group. 

Passing,  then,  to  the  mulatto  in  the  United  States,  it  was 
found  that  the  intermixture  of  the  races  had  gone  on  during 
the  whole  period  that  the  races  have  been  in  contact  on 
American  soil.  This  mixture  was  particularly  rapid  during 
the  colonial  era  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  women  of  the  white 
race  and  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  lack  of  any  intolerant 
racial  prejudice  allowed  the  lower  classes  to  associate,  and 
freely  intermix,  with  the  Negro  women.  The  mixture  prob 
ably  somewhat  decreased  during  the  period  of  national 
slavery  owing  to  a  bitter  hatred  that  grew  up  between  the 
Negroes  and  the  lower-class  whites  and  to  the  fact  that  the 
Negroes  were  under  a  stricter  control.  The  intermixture 
also  appears  by  statistical  measurement  to  have  gone  on  at 
a  rate  somewhat  slower  than  was  actually  the  case  owing  to 
the  fact  that  much  of  it  was  with  the  mulatto  rather  than 
with  the  black  girls.  Since  the  Emancipation  there  has 


378  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

continued  to  be  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  mulattoes. 

The  intermixture  of  the  races  in  the  United  States  has 
been  almost  exclusively  outside  the  bounds  of  the  marriage 
union.  There  has  been  a  little  intermarriage  between  the 
races,  generally  between  lower-class  white  women  and  Negro 
or  mulatto  men.  The  number  of  such  marriages,  however, 
has  been  so  small  as  to  be  entirely  negligible  in  the  con 
sideration  of  race  mixture.  There  has  been  a  much  larger 
amount  of  concubinage  of  Negro  girls  by  white  men.  This 
form  of  sex  relation  was  common  in  some  sections  during 
the  slave  regime  and  still  exists  to  some  extent.  The  great 
amount  of  the  intermixture,  however,  has  been  of  the  na 
ture  of  temporary  associations  implying  absolutely  nothing 
in  the  way  of  sentimental  attachment  on  either  side  and 
being  in  point  of  fact  nothing  more  than  a  satisfaction  of 
the  physical  appetite  of  the  individuals  concerned.  This 
form  of  association  at  present  is  most  frequently  between 
mulatto  men  and  black  girls,  on  the  one  hand,  and  between 
white  men  and  mulatto  girls,  on  the  other. 

As  individuals,  the  mulattoes  always  have  enjoyed  op 
portunities  somewhat  greater  than  those  enjoyed  by  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  black  Negroes.  In  slavery  days,  they 
were  most  frequently  the  trained  servants  and  had  the  ad 
vantages  of  daily  contact  with  cultured  men  and  women. 
Many  of  them  were  free  and  so  enjoyed  whatever  advan 
tages  went  with  that  superior  status.  They  were  considered 
by  the  white  people  to  be  superior  in  intelligence  to  the 
black  Negroes  and  came  to  take  great  pride  in  the  fact  of 
their  white  blood.  They  developed  a  tradition  of  superi 
ority.  This  idea  was  accepted  by  the  black  Negroes  and 
consequently  the  mulattoes  enjoyed  a  prestige  in  the  Negro 
group.  Where  possible,  they  formed  a  sort  of  mixed-blood 
caste  and  held  themselves  aloof  from  the  black  Negroes  and 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  379 

the  slaves  of  lower  station. 

The  mulattoes,  at  all  times  in  the  history  of  the  Negro 
in  America,  have  been  the  superior  individuals  of  the  race. 
Of  the  score  or  so  of  men  of  first-rate  ability  which  the 
race  has  produced,  not  more  than  two  at  the  most  were 
Negroes  of  pure  blood.  Of  the  two  hundred  or  so  who  have 
made  the  most  noteworthy  success  in  a  business  or  profes 
sional  way,  all,  with  less  than  a  dozen  exceptions,  are  Ne 
groes  of  mixed  blood.  Of  some  two  hundred  and  forty-six 
persons,  presumably  the  most  successful  and  the  best  known 
men  the  race  has  produced,  at  least  thirteen-fourteenths  of 
them  are  men  of  mixed  blood.  Of  the  list  of  six  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  names  of  persons  compiled  from  the  his 
torical  and  biographical  literature  and  including  men  of 
a  distinctly  lesser  degree  of  note,  only  about  one-ninth  were 
even  of  approximately  pure  blood.  The  same  condition 
was  found  to  prevail  in  the  examination  of  compilations 
of  the  leading  men  in  the  various  professional  and  semi- 
professional  pursuits ;  the  professional  men  of  the  race  are 
nearly  all  mulattoes  as  are  the  men  who  have  succeeded  in 
some  form  of  artistic  or  semi-artistic  endeavor.  In  the  in 
dustrial  and  business  world  the  same  condition  prevails ;  the 
men  who  have  made  any  marked  success  are  found  to  be 
in  nearly  every  case  from  the  mixed-blood  group.  It  was 
further  found  that  by  taking  large  numbers  of  cases  from 
any  profession  or  pursuit  and  consequently  tapping  lower 
ranges  of  ability  and  success,  the  ratio  of  black  men  to  mu 
lattoes  was  increased.  The  higher  the  standard  of  success, 
the  lower  the  per  cent  of  full-blooded  Negroes.  This  was 
the  case  as  between  different  professions  and  within  the 
ranks  of  the  same  profession;  the  ministry  has  a  much 
higher  per  cent  of  full-blood  Negroes  than  does  the  medical 
or  the  teaching  profession;  the  higher  positions  in  all  the 


380  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

professions   have  been   reached   by   mulattoes,   very   seldom 
by    black    Negroes.      Speaking   generally,    the   intellectual 

1  class  of  the  race  is  composed  of  mulattoes ;  a  black  man 
in  the  class  is  a  rather  rare  exception. 

The  role  which  these  mixed-blood  individuals  have  played 
in  the  inter-racial  situation  has  varied  with  the  time  and 
the  place.  During  the  slavery  period,  they  were  the  su 
perior  individuals ;  but  they  were  not  leaders.  In  the  decade 
just  preceding  the  Civil  War,  a  few  persons  of  Negro  blood 
took  a  minor  part  in  the  anti-slavery  agitation.  During  the 
Reconstruction  Period,  they  were  in  some  cases  used  by  the 
white  politicians,  but  had  little  independent  part.  After 
the  War  and  the  Reconstruction,  there  was  a  further  sepa 
ration  between  the  superior  mulattoes  and  the  mass  of  the 
race;  the  tendency  for  them  to  form  a  caste  within  or  just 
above  the  Negro  group  continued. 

In  the  North,  the  mulattoes  of  education  have  tended 
to  be  agitators  for  equal  social,  civil,  and  political  rights. 
They  consider  the  ballot  an  inherent  human  right  rather 
than  an  earned  responsibility ;  consequently,  they  do  not 

I  endeavor  to  fit  the  Negroes  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
suffrage,  but  strive  to  force  the  abandonment  of  suffrage 
requirements.  In  social  and  civil  affairs,  they  insist  that 
equality  of  treatment  is  synonymous  with  identity  of  treat 
ment.  Their  spirit  is  one  of  complaint  and  bitterness.  They 
represent  a  grievance  rather  than  a  policy  of  constructive 
work.  They  emphasize  what  the  law  can  do  for  the  Negro 
and  concern  themselves  very  little  with  what  the  Negro  can 
do  for  himself.  They  assume,  moreover,  the  role  of  spokes 
man  for  the  race  though,  as  a  whole,  they  neither  understand 
nor  represent  the  Negro.  They  do  not  live  with  the  Ne 
groes  ;  they  do  not  know  the  Negroes,  and,  in  general,  they 
do  not  know  the  condition  of  the  race.  They  are  widely 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  381 

separated  in  appearance  and  in  sympathy  from  the  mass 
of  the  Negro  people.  They  are  not  even  in  close  touch  with 
the  mass  of  the  Negroes  in  the  Northern  States.  They  have 
not,  as  yet,  found  themselves  nor  their  place  in  the  general 
social  life  of  the  community. 

In  the  South  with  the  growth  of  industrial  education  and 
the  rise  of  a  middle-class  within  the  Negro  group,  the  mu- 
lattoes  have  taken  their  place  as  the  natural  leaders  of  the 
race.  The  bi-racial  adjustment  of  the  races  has  allowed 
the  rise  of  men  of  superior  ability  and  of  training  and  has 
provided  a  place  for  them.  These  men  are,  in  all  but  the  ex 
ceptional  cases,  mulattoes  and  generally  men  of  more  white 
than  black  blood.  The  teaching  of  these  Southern  mu 
latto  leaders  is  work  and  service.  They  emphasize  what 
the  Negroes  can  do  to  improve  their  condition  and  recog 
nize  that  they  will  gain  in  efficiency  and  in  strength  of  char 
acter  by  overcoming  obstacles.  They  are  close  to  the  Ne 
gro;  they  are  content  to  be  classed  with  the  race.  They 
have  abandoned  any  hope  they  may  have  entertained  of 
being  white  men.  They  have  their  work  and  their  place. 
Their  social  and  consequently  their  psychological  status 
is  fixed,  and  there  is,  therefore,  an  almost  entire  absence  of 
the  bitterness  which  characterizes  the  Northern  division  of 

the  mulatto  group. 

*  *  *  *  * 

Any  race,  or  group  within  a  race,  which  is  subjected  to 
discrimination  or  persecution  tends  to  take  on  the  form 
of  a  nationality.  The  natural  bonds  of  union  within  are 
strengthened  by  the  opposition  from  without.  A  race  con 
sciousness  and  a  race  pride  tend  to  develop  as  a  defensive 
reaction.  The  struggle  of  races  and  of  race  groups  is 
not  so  much  an  economic  struggle  as  it  is  a  struggle  for 
self-respect  and  race  preservation.  As  the  group  or  race 


382  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

in  contact  with  one  of  superior  culture  itself  advances  to 
a  degree  of  culture,  the  innate  desire  of  the  members  to 
isolate  themselves  from  unpleasant  stimulation  and  to  enjoy 
the  association  of  others  of  their  kind,  becomes  strength 
ened  by  their  consciousness  that  their  presence  is  an  unwel 
come  intrusion  upon  the  desires  of  the  other  race.  A  de 
veloping  consciousness  of  worth  reinforces  the  innate  tend 
ency  and  the  prideful  reaction.  The  ostracized  group 
develops  a  pride  of  accomplishment  in  an  effort  to  offset 
the  feeling  of  inferiority  which  the  rejection  by  the  supe 
rior  group  necessarily  creates.  The  race  or  group  escapes 
the  unpleasant  stimulation  given  by  the  latent  or  active 
hostility  of  the  superior  group  by  retiring  within  itself 
and  endeavoring  to  become  self-sufficient.  This  seems  to 
be  the  tendency  of  the  American  Negro  group  in  the  pres 
ent  decade. 

The  obstacles  to  racial  solidarity  among  the  American 
Negroes,  however,  are  very  numerous  and  very  real.  Their 
isolation  is  nowhere  complete;  geographically  they  are  set 
tled  among  a  more  numerous  white  population  on  which, 
in  very  large  measure^Hhey  are  economically  and  cultur 
ally  dependent.  Q>  They  lack  a  distinctive  language,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  focal  points  for  the  growth  of  such  a 
sentimental  complex,  and,  in  the  common  language,  there  is 
^  no  body  of  literature  by  members  of  the  race  that  is  in 
in  any  way  distinctive,  or  in  which  a  pride  of  achievement 
can  center.  ^ Their  religion  is  but  a  recent  acquisition  and 
in  creed  differs  in  no  essential  way  from  the  religion  of  the 
white  race.  ®  Their  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  life 
are  in  no  way  distinctive.  N  The  race  is  without  a  history, 
or  even  a  tradition  of  past  greatness.  Consequently,  there 
are  no  historical  names  about  which  a  popular  tradition 
can  grow.  The  only  accomplishments  of  the  race  are  mod- 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  383 

ern  ones;  a  generation  into  the  past  brings  them  against 
the  bleak  fact  of  slavery  and  beyond  that  lies  the  age-long 
condition  from  which  enslavement  by  a  civilized  race  was 
a  mighty  step.  ^Color,  the  peculiarity  of  physical  type, 
is  the  obvious  basis  for  their  nationality.  But  color  is 
everywhere  correlated  with  primitive  and  degraded  people; 
it  is  a  thing  from  which  to  escape,  not  a  thing  of  which  to 
be  proud. 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  apparently  insuperable  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  a  Negro  nationality  in  America,  the  present 
tendency  is  clearly  in  that  direction.  It  is  toward  an  iden 
tification  of  the  various  creeds  and  a  union  of  the  various 
classes  in  the  race ;  toward  a  feeling  of  pride  in  the  growing 
accomplishments  of  the  race  and  a  consciousness  of  unity 
of  interest.  Whatever  may  be  the  limit  that  the  tendency 
may  finally  reach,  it  is  being  promoted  both  designedly  and 
undesignedly  by  both  the  whites  and  the  blacks,  and  by 
forces  from  within  and  from  without  the  race. 

The  isolation  of  the  race  through  voluntary  action  on 
its  part  and  through  legal  action  on  the  part  of  the  white 
race,  is  the  most  important  single  fact  making  for  class 
consciousness  and  race  solidarity.  This  isolation  of  the  race 
is  not  a  recent  phenomenon.  It  is  the  legal  recognition  and 
enforcement  of  the  separation  and  the  extension  of-it  to 
include  every  line  of  contact  and  every  individual  of  the  race 
which  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  present  policy. 
The  degree  to  which  the  races  are  admittedly  separate  is 
somewhat  different  in  different  regions.  Where  the  numbers 
of  the  race  are  small  and  their  activities  have  not  conflicted 
with  the  white  man's  idea  of-what  the  Negroes'  attitude 
and  behavior  should  be,  they  have,  except  in  the  proscrip 
tion  against  social  equality,  met  with  no  serious  difficulty 
beyond  the  contempt-to-hatred  attitude  of  their  white  neigh- 


384  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

bors.  But  wherever  their  numbers  have  become  consider 
able,  or  their  attitude  has  become  assertive,  the  Negroes 
have  met  the  non-intercourse  policy  of  the  dominant  white 
man. 

The  present  tendency  is  toward  an  increased  application 
intensively  and  extensively  of  this  segregation  policy.  Resi 
dential  segregation  is  well-nigh  universal.  In  the  South, 
generally,  it  is  enforced  by  state  laws  and  city  ordinances ; 
in  the  North,  by  various  means  depending  upon  the  local 
conditions.1  In  the  school,  the  Negro  child  is  separated  from 
the  white  in  all  the  states  having  a  considerable  black  pop 
ulation.  The  number  of  Negro  schools  is  increasing  in  the. 
cities  of  the  North.  Where  separate  schools  are  not  spe 
cially  provided,  the  residential  segregation  in  the  Northern, 
cities  usually  confines  the  Negro  children  to  one  or  a  few 
schools.  2  The  churches  and  church  organizations  are  gen 
erally  separate  and  tend  to  become  more  independent  in 
their  development.  The  membership  of  most  of  the  well- 
known  secret  societies  is  limited  to  white  men.  The  clande 
stine  lodges  of  the  Negroes  under  similar  names  have  noth 
ing  in  common  with  the  white  organizations  except  the 
names  3  and  the  Negroes  have  organized  many  secret  so- 

1  In  Chicago  the  most  effective  technique  seems  to  be  a  gentleman's 
agreement  among  the  real  estate  men. 

A  recent  ruling  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court — November  5, 
1917 — holds  all  residential  segregation  laws  to  be  unconstitutional.  It 
will  be  of  interest  to  note  in  how  far  this  decision  will  modify  the 
present  tendency. 

3  It  is  still  an  open  question  and  one  just  beginning  to  be  investigated 
scientifically,  whether  or  not  the  difference  in  mental  ability  of  the  races 
is  sufficiently  great  to  warrant  their  separate  education  as  a  matter  of 
economy  and  educational  policy.  See,  for  e.g.,  M.  J.  Mayo,  The  Mental 
Capacity  of  the  American  Negro. 

8  See  G.  W.  Crawford,  Prince  Hall  and  His  Followers,  for  a  recent 
effort  by  a  mulatto  to  prove  the  legitimacy  of  Negro  Masonry. 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  385 

* 

cieties  under  distinctive  names.  The  social  life  of  the  races 
is  everywhere  separate  and  distinct.4  Slowly  the  race  is 
evolving  its  own  group  of  business  and  professional  men 
who  cater  exclusively  to  their  own  race  while  the  white 
business  and  professional  men  tend  to  avoid  the  patronage 
of  the  Negroes.5  Injd]Jiii£S-aildjn^all  sections  of  the  coun 
try,  the  tendency  of  the  white  people  seems  to  be  to  force 
the  Negro  people  back  upon  themselves  and  to  allow  them 
or  to  force  them  to  develop  their  own  institutions  and  racial 
life. 

^  This  policy  on  the  part  of  the  whites  is  supplemented  by 
the  desire  of  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Negroes  themselves!^5* 
An  overwhelming  majority  of  the  Negroes  accept  racial 
separation  as  a  simple  and  natural  matter  of  fact.  6  It  sel 
dom  concerns  them  in  any  concrete  way  and  they  are  but 
little  interested  in  abstract  considerations.  They  live  in 
Negro  settlements  as  a  matter  of  social  choice  and  of  eco 
nomic  necessity.  They  avail  themselves  thankfully  of  what 
ever  school  facilities  are  offered  them;  other  things  being 
equal,  they  generally  prefer  the  separate  schools.7  They 

4  See  O.  Madden,  "A  Color  Phase  of  Washington,"  The  World  To-day, 
Vol.  14,  pp.  549-52. 

8  The  largest  department  store  in  Chicago,  for  e.g.,  endeavors  by  in 
attentive  treatment  to  discourage  Negro  patronage. 

See  reference  to  Hartman  Furniture  Company  in  the  Crisis,  4-1915,  p. 
316.  White  bankers  frequently  refuse  deposits  of  Negroes  and  direct 
them  to  institutions  managed  by  members  of  their  own  race. 

8  See  Maurice  S.  Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  Southern  States,  pp. 
144-45.  What  the  Negro  resents  is,  frequently,  not  so  much  the  fact 
of  segregation  as  the  humiliating  way  in  which  the  policy  is  enforced 
and  the  abusive  tone  of  many  of  its  advocates. 

7  "There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  that  separate  school  systems, 
by  giving  colored  children  their  own  teachers  and  a  sense  of  racial 
pride,  are  enabled  to  keep  more  colored  children  in  school  and  take  them 
through  longer  courses  than  mixed  systems.  The  100,000  Negroes  of 
Baltimore  have  600  pupils  in  the  separate  high  school;  New  York,  with 


386  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

seek  and  prefer  the  society  of  their  own  class  and  color. 
The  fact  that  they  are  unwelcome  in  the  hotels  and  restau 
rants,  in  the  theaters  and  other  places  of  amusement  and 
entertainment  open  to  the  whites,  never  comes  within  the 
experience  of  any  but  the  very  exceptional  Negro.  The  ex 
clusion  policy  of  the  whites  is  in  line  with  the  natural  tend 
ency  of  the  blacks ;  it  affects  and  offends  the  small  class 
of  educated  and  cultured  individuals  who  have  more  in  com 
mon,  intellectually  and  otherwise,  with  the  cultured  whites, 
than  they  have  with  the  mass  of  the  Negro  people.8 

On  the  part  of  the  leaders  among  the  Negroes,  there  is 
an  ihcreasing  amount  of  voluntary  segregation  in  more 
places  and  in  more  lines.  Separate  schools  are  advocated 
and  petitioned  for:  they  open  positions  for  the  teachers. 
Professional  and  business  men  see  it  more  and  more  to  their 
advantage  to  promote  a  spirit  of  race  solidarity.9  To 
the  extent  to  which  this  exists,  they  cease  to  be  in  compe 
tition  with  the  business  and  professional  men  of  the  other 
race.10  In  increasing  numbers  they  are  going  South,  iden 
tifying  themselves  with  the  race,  and  finding  their  life  and 
work  among  the  black  group.  The  opportunities  for  the 
educated  and  ambitious  Negro  or  mulatto  is  greatest  among 
the  people  of  his  own  race.11  Competition  there  is  not  so 
keen  and  the  slightly  superior  individual  can  become  an 
important  and  influential  person.  The  matter  of  self-inter- 

a  larger  colored  population,  has  less  than  200  in  its  mixed  high  schools." 
Editorial,  Crisis,  2-1912,  p.  184-85.  ^ 

8  See  E.  W.  Blyden,  Christianity,  Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,  pp. 
168-69. 

•Editorial,  "Segregation — Let  Her  Come,"  The  Conservative  Coun 
selor,  Waco,  Texas,  9-2-1915. 

10  See  Editorial,  "Paying  for  a  Name,"  Chicago,  Illinois,  Idea,  9-9-1915. 

11  Booker    T.    Washington,    "Why    Should    Negro    Business    Men    Go 
South?"  Charities,  Vol.  15,  pp.  17-19. 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  387 

est  ranges  them  on  the  side  of  the  segregation  policy  where 
the  rank  and  file  always  have  been  as  a  matter  of  choice. 
The  acquisition  of  these  men  increases  the  feeling  of  im 
portance  on  the  part  of  the  group  and  so  increases  its  tend 
ency  toward  unity.  With  the  increase  of  racial  unity, 
the  opportunities  for  educated  men  in  the  race  increase  in 
number  and  importance,  and  this,  in  turn,  attracts  with  in 
creasing  force  the  mulatto  and  other  superior  men  of  the 
race. 

The  self-respect  as  well  as  the  self-interest  of  the  educated 
Negro  tends  to  the  same  end  as  the  proscription  of  the 
white  and  the  temperament  of  the  blacks.  Speaking  gener 
ally,  no  Negro,  regardless  of  color  or  training,  is  welcome 
in  any  social  organization  of  cultured  white  people  any 
where  in  America.  In  the  semi-social  and  professional  or 
ganizations,  the  same  thing  is  in  general  true.12  If  the 
Negro  is  not  barred  from  the  medical,  bar,  teaching,  and 
other  professional  associations,  he  never  is  made  to  feel 
that  he  is  welcome.  As  a  consequence,  the  Negro,  to  the 
extent  of  his  culture  and  education,  stays  away  when  he 
finds  that  he  is  not  wanted.  It  is  the  only  action  he  can 
take  and  preserve  his  self-respect.13 

By  going  South,  the  educated  Negro  is  allowed  to  forget 
that  he  is  denied  privileges  granted  to  others,  that  the  race 
is  looked  upon  as  inferior  and  treated  as  alien.  These  are 
things  which  concern  the  individual  very  little.  Aside  from 
the  professional  agitator,  they  distress  the  Negro  not  at 

"The  action  of  the  American  Bar  Association  in  regard  to  certain 
near-white  Negroes  who  had  been  accepted  into  membership  without  the 
fact  of  their  race  being  known  to  the  Association  is  a  case  in  point. 
See  "The  American  Bar  Association  and  the  Negro,"  Outlook,  Vol.  102, 
pp.  1-2;  "Lawyers  and  the  Color  Line,"  Literary  Digest,  Vol.  45,  p. 
361 ;  "The  Color  Line  at  the  Bar,"  The  Nation,  Vol.  94,'  pp.  509-10. 

18  Editorial,  The  Voice  of  the  People,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  3-13-1915. 


388  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

all.  In  the  North,  however,  they  are  the  constant  refrain 
from  which  the  only  escape  is  an  escape  from  the  race. 
In  the  South,  the  educated  Negro  can  escape  this  ever 
lasting  agitation  about  his  status  and  his  rights.  There  his 
social  status  is  fixed  and  once  he  realizes  and  accepts  this 
fact,  it  ceases  to  trouble  him.  He  has  his  own  group  and 
he  is  definitely  excluded  from  white  society.  The  treat 
ment  in  the  matter  is  at  least  consistent  and  the  mulatto, 
recognizing  the  impossibility  of  achieving  a  position  of  so 
cial  equality,  ceases  to  be  concerned  about  it  and  loses  his 
bitterness  at  being  excluded.  He  is  able  to  stop  "thinking 
black."  The  morbid  brooding  over  real  and  fancied  wrongs 
gives  place  to  a  healthy  thought  about  actual  problems. 
The  attitude  of  slavish  dependence — the  childish  wail  for 
others  to  right  his  wrongs — is  replaced  by  an  attitude  of 
manly  independence,  a  determination  to  face  the  world  and 
to  play  a  manly  part  therein.  Agitation  gives  place  to 
work;  self-reliance  replaces  self-pity.  He  no  longer  lives 
"behind  the  veil";  he  is  dealing  with  objective  reality.  He 
becomes  a  useful  man  and,  in  proportion  to  his  ability,  a 
leader  among  his  people. 

Another  thing  making  for  the  increase  in  this  spirit  of 
nationality  is  the  growing  literature  of  the  race.  This  is  a 
focal  point  about  which  the  sentiments  of  the  race  can 
crystallize.  As  it  increases  in  volume  and  in  quality  and 
comes  to  be  more  widely  read,  the  sentiment  of  pride  cor 
respondingly  increases.  There  is  also  some  effort  being 
made  by  the  Negroes  themselves  to  create  a  Negro  history.14 
A  tradition  of  musical  genius  already  exists  among  the  race 
and,  outside  musical  circles,  is  generally  accepted  by  the 
whites.  The  gift  which  so  many  Negroes  have  for  effective 
public  speaking  is  another  thing  of  which  the  race  is  ex- 

14  See  p.  216  above. 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  389 

ceedingly  proud.  The  point  here  is  that  regardless  of  the 
slender  basis  of  fact  upon  which  many  of  these  things  rest, 
they  have  an  immense  effect  upon  the  thinking  of  the  race. 
It  is  the  opinion  that  a  race  has  of  itself  that  counts  in 
the  growth  of  a  nationalistic  spirit,15  and  the  opinion  of  the 

hejsjMJTJTTkejs    nf    fhp    rnnp    is    rnrm'ng   mnr^__grujnir>rp    to    be 

that  if  theNegroes  desire  really  to  reach  a  full  manhood 
tHey_jimst_reach  it  by  being  Negroes  rather  than  by  being 
weak  imitations  of  white  people. 

Whether  it  be  because  of  compulsion  on  the  part  of  the 
whites  or  because  of  voluntary  action  on  the  part  of  the 
Negroes,  there  is  an  increasing  segregation  on  the  part  of 
the  Negroes  and  consequently  an  increasing  tendency  toward 
racial  solidarity. 

In  this  growing  nationality,  the  mulattoes  who  have  gone 
over  to  the  race  and  cast  their  fortunes  with  it  are  the  aris 
tocracy.  Broadly^pejLkin^,Jt]h^^Te_the  only  members  of 
the  race  who  are  educated.  Consequently,  they  now  form 
the  professional  classes.  For  the  most  part,  they  are  the 
property-owning  members  of  the  race  16  and  most  of  the 
Negroes who  ha¥e^aaade^iy_conspicuous  success  in  a  busi 
ness  or  industrial  way  are  members  of  the  mulatto  division. 
They  are,  then,  the  important  men  in  the  commercial  and 
business  affairs  of  the  race.  Their  color  or  rather  absence 
of  color  helps  to  qualify  them  for  a  social  position  among  the 
elite.  They  have  a  confidence,  born  of  their  pride  in  their 
color  and  their  more  or  less  successfully  concealed  contempt 

u  The  belief  of  the  modern  Greek,  for  example,  and  his  boundless 
pride  in  the  belief,  that  he  i!^  descended  from  the  ancient  historical  race 
is  not  of  any  less  social  significance  because  of  the  mythological  nature 
of  the  belief.  Similarly,  the  Irish  National  movement  is  chiefly  cen 
tered  in  religion,  reinforced  by  myths  of  ancient  greatness. 

18  See  Booker  T.  Washington,  "Negro  Homes,"  Century,  Vol.  76,  pp. 
71-79. 


890  The  Mulatto  in  the  United  States 

for  a  black  skin,  that  the  black  man  seldom  attains.  They 
have,  and  tend  to  maintain,  an  exclusive  social  status  that 
is  the  despair  and  the  envy  of  the  black  man.17  Their 
superior  economic  position,  their  superior  training,  their 
light  color  and  the  tradition  of  superiority,  all  combine  to 
make  them  the  important  and  superior  individuals  in  any 
racial  group. 

Certain  consequences  of  this  movement  are  fairly  obvious. 
According  as  one  judges  these  to  be  desirable  or  undesirable, 
one  will  be  disposed  to  approve  or  oppose  the  nationalistic 
tendency. 

Racial  solidarity  means  an  increased  isolation  of  the 
Negro  group.  The- -bi- racial  adjustment  tends  to  keep  the 
races  aparj.  The  further  the  Negroes  develop  a  sense  of 
nationality,  the  further  do  they  voluntarily  separate  them 
selves  from  the  white  world.  Direct^iiidiy^dual  competition 
bet weeiL^the  members  of  the  races  tends  jo  fUmiTjfck  They 
receive  less  stimulation  from  the  culture  of  the  other  race; 
they  are  isolated  from  that  ^stimulatiop.18  To  the  extent 
that  this  becomes  true,  the  Negroes  cease  to  measure  jtheir 
talents  and  accomplishments  by  the'  standards  of  the  supe 
rior  race.  TThey  do  not  compete  with  the  white  man.  The 
isolation  narrows  their  interests  and  their  conceptions,  for 
there  is  little  with  which  to  compare  them  and  weigh  their 
value.  They  do  not  need  to  measure  lip  to  the  white  man's 
standard ;  they  can  live  and  succeed-  on  a  lower  plane  of 
efficiency.  They  are  more  or  less  out  of  the  stream  of 
social  advancement  and  the  strenuous  competition  of  mod 
ern  life.  This  isolation  means,  of  course,  a  slower  advance 

1T  See  editorial,  "Don't  Blame  All,"  The  Bee,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1-30- 
1915.  See,  also,  Boston  Reliance,  3-13-1915. 

18  J.  H.  DeLoach,  "The  Negro  as  a  Farmer,"  Atlanta  Congress,  1913, 
p.  381, 


Summary.  Present  Tendencies  391 

on  the  part  of  the  Negroes  toward  the  standards  and,  ac 
complishments  of  European  jciyHizatkau.  but  it  also  means 
a  morVnormal  development,  a  more  gradual  accommodation 
to  ideas  and  standards  that,  by  the  great  mass  of  the  race, 
are  at  present  neither  appreciated  nor  understood.  A 
gradual  elevation  of  the  race  means  less  disorganization 
of  the  individual  and  of  the  group.  The  crises  in  the  ad 
vance  are  less  radical  and  the  chances  for  a  normal  ac 
commodation  are  greater.  In  brief,  it  means  a  slower  but 
a  more  normal  advance  toward  the  ideals  and  standards  of 
the  white  group. 

The  isolation  consequent  upon  the  formation  of  a  na 
tionality  tends,  in  many  ways,  to  inferior  educational  oppor 
tunity  for  the  members  of  the  race.  To  the  extent  that  the 
schools  are  separated  and  the  Negro  schools  in  the  hands 
of  the  race,  the  black  children  will  get  their  schooling  from 
mulatto  teachers.  These  mulattoes  are  themselves  but  su 
perficially  and  imperfectly  trained  men.  The  highest  esti 
mate  would  hardly  place  the  number  of  college  trained 
Negroes  at  five  thousand.19  They,  for  the  most  part,  are 
the  product  of  miserably  inefficient  Negro  colleges.  As 
long  as  these  colleges  exist  with  their  present  low  stand 
ards — and  the  nationalistic  tendency  is  to  put  them  more 
and  more  in  the  hands  of  the  race — the  graduates,  so  far 
as  schooling  is  concerned,  will  be  equal,  perhaps,  to  the 
graduate  of  the  ordinary  white  high  school.  The  teachers 
of  the  race  will,  at  best,  be  graduates  of  these  inferior  col 
leges,  and  the  masses  of  the  race  will  be  defectively  trained 
just  to  the  extent  that  they  are  isolated  from  the  white 

UC.  H.  McCord  estimates  the  number  of  Negro  college  graduates 
from  1840  to  1909  as  3,853,  and  from  1910  to  1914  inclusive  as  1,147, 
a  total  of  5,000  in  all  for  the  period  of  75  yeari.  The  American  Negro 
as  a  Dependent,  Defective  and  Delinquent,  p.  14. 


392  The  Mulatto  in  tlie  United  States 

race.20  Under  the  nationalistic  system,  therefore,  the  black 
man  will  not  make  very  rapid  strides  in  educational  advance 
ment. 

The  growth  of  a  nationality  means  the  increasing  compe 
tition  on  racial  lines  and  the  decreasing  competition  of  in 
dividuals  of  the  two  races.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  competition 
is  a  selective  process.  The  fact  that  individual  differences 
iare  everywhere  greater  than  race  differences  makes  compe 
tition  act  against  stratification  on  the  basis  of  race  and_ 
tends  to  put  the  individual,  regardless  of  race,  into  the  place 
for  which  he  is  best  fitted.  The  racial  competition  results 
in  forcing  the  mass  of  the  race  into  the  occupation,  or  small 
group  of  occupations,  in  which  they  are  best  fitted  to  sur 
vive,  or  for  which  no  other  group  will  compete.  The  dis 
placement  of  the  race  from  many  vocations  on  which  the}' 
once  had  a  virtual  monopoly  has  already  gone  very  far. 
Mrs.  Fannie  Barrier  Williams,21  writing  in  1905  in  regard 
to  the  Negroes  of  Chicago,  says  on  this  point :  22 

...  In  the  matter  of  employment,  the  colored  people 
of  Chicago  have  lost  in  the  last  ten  years  nearly  every 
occupation  of  which  they  once  had  almost  a  monopoly. 
There  is  now  scarcely  a  Negro  barber  left  in  the  busi 
ness  district.  Nearly  all  the  janitor  work  in  the  large 

20  "If  such  segregation   led   to  the    formation   of  Negro  communities 
entirely  apart  from  the  life  of  the  state  and  the  current  civilized  life 
around  them,  with  the  prospect  of  personal  and  communal  deterioration, 
I  should  be  against  it.     But  I  can  see  no  reason  why  it  should  be  so. 
The  best  of  the  race  would  join  the  movement,  the  educated  and  trained 
would  be  available  to  keep  the  community  life  at  a  high  standard,  while 
the  highest  voluntary  assistance  and  advice  of  the  philanthropic  whites 
would  be  willingly  given.  .  .  ."     Evans,  Black  and  White  in  the  South 
ern  States,  p.  259. 

21  See  p.  223  above. 

""Social  Bonds  in  the  'Black  Belt'  of  Chicago,"  Charities,  Vol.   15, 
p.   43. 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  393 

buildings  has  been  taken  away  from  them  by  the  Swedes. 
White  men  and  women  as  waiters  have  supplanted  col- 
ered  men  in  nearly  all  the  first-class  hotels  and  restau 
rants.  Practically  all  the  shoe  polishing  is  now  done 
by  Greeks.  Negro  coachmen  and  expressmen  and  team 
sters  are  seldom  seen  in  the  business  districts.  .  .  . 

In  the  decade  following,  the  Negroes  still  further  lost 
ground.  Not  only  in  Chicago  but  throughout  the  country, 
the  Negroes  have  been  forced  out  of  every  occupation  in 
which  they  have  come  into  competition  with  another  race. 
Only  as  roustabouts  and  rough  laborers  in  the  cities,  and 
as  agricultural  laborers  in  the  South,  have  the  Negroes  been 
able  to  hold  their  own.23 

The  growth  of  racial  solidarity  probably  means  a  les 
sening  of  racial  intermixture.  The  segregation  and  the 
voluntary  isolation  prevent,  in  large  measure,  the  opportuv 
nity  for  it  to  take  place.  So  long  as  the  races  are  not  iso 
lated  and  remain  on  different  cultural  levels,  intermixture 
will  go  on  to  the  extent  of  the  desire  of  the  males  of  the 
superior  race.  Segregation  does  not  lessen  the  tendency  to 
intermix;  it  lessens  the  opportunity.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  developing  sense  of  race  pride  tends  to  the  same  end.24 
The  Negro  woman  ceases  to  desire  such  relations  when  they 
come  to  mean  disgrace  instead  of  prestige.  When  the  Ne 
gro  provides  as  well  for  his  wife  as  the  white  man  does  for 
his  black  or  yellow  concubine,  there  is  also  less  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  race  women  to  form  such  unions.25  The 

23  E.  C.  Branson,  "The  Negro  Working  Out  His  Own  Salvation," 
Atlanta  Congress,  1913,  p.  390.  The  exceptions  to  such  generalizations 
are  of  course  very  numerous.  In  some  cases  the  Negroes  have  been 
forced  up  instead  of  out. 

"Thomas  Nelson  Page,  The  Negro,  p.  291. 

25  See  Editorial  "Enemies  Within  Our  Camp,"  The  Chicago  Defender, 
4-22-1916. 


394  The  Mulatto  In  the  United  States 

vicious  elements  of  the  race,  moreover,  will  be  restrained 
by  a  sense  of  public  disapproval  and  casual  intermixture 
will  decrease. 

The  growth  of  a  nationalistic  spirit  may  very  conceivably 
mean  an  increase  of  friction  between  the  races.26  The  in 
crease  of  race  pride  and  personal  self-respect,  until  it 
reaches  a  stage  beyond  mere  bumptiousness  and  braggado 
cio,  has  a  tendency  to  bring  the  man  into  conflict  with  his 
social  surroundings.  The  mulattoes  going  over  to  the  Ne 
groes  and  becoming  their  leaders  contain  a  large  per  cent 
of  disgruntled  agitators.27  So  far,  also,  as  the  mulattoes 
are  Northern  men,  they  are  unfamiliar  with  the  Negro  char 
acter  and  with  the  conditions  of  life  in  the  South.  That  they 
are  not  always  wise  leaders  may  well  be  supposed.  Their 
mistakes  may  increase  racial  strife  unless  restrained  by 
the  common  sense  of  the  members  of  the  two  races.28  Some 
opponents  of  the  segregation  policy  even  predict  race  wars 
and  revolutions — analogous,  apparently,  to  the  situation 
in  the  Latin-American  countries  which  has  been  brought 
about,  partly  at  least,  by  the  adoption  of  an  opposite  policy 
— as  the  final  outcome  of  the  segregation  policy.29  Except 
for  the  placid  disposition  and  the  native  common  sense  of 
the  black  man,  the  anarchistic  teachings  of  some  of  the  mal 
contents  doubtless  would  result  occasionally  in  rioting  and 
the  growth  of  a  spirit  of  racial  ill-will. 

28  S.   D.  McEnery,  "Race   Problem   in   the  South,"  Independent,   Vol. 
55,  p.  426. 

27  "There  is,  indeed,  rather  a  tendency  to  racial  solidarity  in  opposi 
tion  to  the  whites  on  all  questions  whatsoever;  .  .  .  There  is,  more 
over,  a  not  rare  belief  among  the  whites  that  the  preachers  and  leaders 
contribute  to  increase  these  tendencies  and  teach  hostility  rather  than  try 
to  uplift  the  race  morally."  Page,  The  Negro,  p.  304.  See,  also,  p.  307. 

^McCord,  The  American  Negro,  p.   109. 

29  "Segregation,"   Crisis,  12-1913. 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  395 

The  mulattoes  at  present  are  the  leading  men  of  the  race 
and  the  indication  is  that  they  will  become  more  and  more 
so  as  time  goes  on.  They  have  an  immense  start  of  the 
blacks  and,  granting  that  they  have  an  equal  amount  of 
native  ability,  there  is  no  immediate  prospect  of  their  losing 
the  lead  they  now  have,  but  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
gap  will  tend  to  widen.  It  is  certainly  being  widened  at  the 
present  time. 

The  mulattoes  are  the  property-owning  class  among  the 
race.  Most  of  the  business  is  conducted  by  them.  They 
are  the  ones  who  own  homes  and  other  property.  Whatever 
be  the  advance  that  the  black  man  may  make,  the  mulatto 
group  with  the  aid  of  the  accumulated  capital  is  advancing 
in  economic  prosperity  at  even  greater  strides. 

The  mulattoes  are  at  present  the  educated  and  the  pro 
fessional  classes  among  the  race.  Moreover,  at  present  they 
make  the  greatest  use  of  the  schools  of  a  secondary  and  col 
lege  character  which  provide  education  to  members  of  the 
race.  This  means  that,  for  a  generation  at  least,  the  mu 
lattoes  will  continue  to  be  the  intellectual  group  of  the 
race. 

The  ideal  of  the  Negro  is  a  light-colored  man.  So  long 
as  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the  notables  of  the  race  ' 
are  yellow  or  near-white  rather  than  brown  or  black,  the 
ideal  of  the  race  will  continue  to  be  light  rather  than  dark. 
With  the  growth  of  racial  solidarity,  these  individuals  are 
more  and  more  included  within  the  race  where  their  light 
color  is  a  distinct  asset  to  them.30  The  ideal  of  the  race 
tends  to  perpetuate  the  mulatto  as  a  superior  type. 

The  mulattoes   are  everywhere  proud  of  their  white  re- 

30  This  is  true  in  spite  of  a  species  of  "race  pride"  which  seeks  out 
black  men  for  high  positions  and  show  purposes  instead  of  seeking 
competence. 


396  The  Mulatto  m  the  United  States 

lationship  and  anxious  to  preserve  it.  Nearly  every  man 
of  the  group  marries  a  woman  lighter  than  himself.  The 
number  of  prominent  mulattoes  with  wives  who  are  black, 
or  even  noticeably  darker  than  themselves,  are  scarcely 
more  numerous  than  those  who  have  married  white  wives. 
The  tendency,  then,  from  generation  to  generation  is  for 
the  intellectual  part  of  the  race  to  become  lighter  and 
lighter  in  color. 

A  very  small  number  of  very  light  mulattoes  each  year 
desert  the  race  and  become  incorporated  into  the  white  race. 
This  number  tends  to  increase  as  successive  generations  of 
admixture  of  white  blood  lighten  the  color,  straighten  the 
hair,  and  smooth  the  features  of  the  race.  At  present,  how 
ever,  the  intermarriage  of  white  women  with  mulattoes,  as 
well  as  the  illicit  admixture  of  white  blood,  far  more  than 
counterbalances  the  losses  to  the  group  through  such 
changes  of  racial  status. 

Furthermore,  the  mulatto  group  continually  is  being  im 
proved  by  the  addition  to  it  of  the  best  blood  of  the  Negro 
race.  The  black  man  of  ability,  in  almost  every  case,  mar 
ries  into  the  mulatto  caste;  and  his  children,  with  whatever 
of  their  father's  superior  mentality  they  inherit,  are  mu 
lattoes.  So  far  as  his  superiority  is  inherited,  it  becomes 
an  asset  to  the  mulatto  group.  The  black  man  of  greatest 
ability,  perhaps,  of  any  black  man  in  the  race  is  married 
to  a  light-colored  mulatto  woman.  The  most  widely  known 
black  man  of  the  race  has  a  wife  who  is  near  white.  The 
black  man  who  approached  nearer  to  genius  than  any  other 
man  the  race  has  produced,  married  a  light  mulatto.  The 
rule  is  almost  without  an  exception  that  the  black  man  of 
consequence  marries  into  the  mulatto  caste.  The  mulatto 
group  thus,  on  the  assumption  of  the  transmission  of  su 
perior  mental  capacity,  tends  to  become  not  only  a  cultur- 


Summary:  Present  Tendencies  397 

ally  but  a  biologically  superior  group. 

The  mulattoes  are  thus  the  vital  point  in  the  whole  race 
problem.  It  is  their  ideas,  their  sentiments,  and  their  atti 
tudes,  in  so  far  as  they  identify  themselves  with  the  race, 
that  tend  to  prevail.  The  fact  needs  to  be  recognized  in 
any  dealing  with  the  race,  or  in  any  efforts  for  race  better 
ment. 

In  any  study  and  discussion  of  the  race  problem,  scien 
tific  accuracy  as  well  as  a  decent  regard  for  simple  truth 
requires  that  the  writer  indicate  whether  his  discussion  has 
to  do  with  full-blooded  Negroes  or  with  the  men  of  mixed 
blood.  The  failure  to  make  this  simple  and  elementary  dis 
tinction,  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  has  made  the  vast 
bulk  of  the  literature  relating  to  the  Negro  in  America 
either  worthless  or  vicious. 


INDEX  TO  NAMES  OF  MEN  WHOSE  ETHNIC 
ANCESTRY  IS  ANALYZED 


.-Abbott,  A.  R.,  228,  238. 
Abbott,  A.  W.,  247,  259. 
Abbott,  Granville  S.,  217. 
Abner,  David,  265. 
Adams,  Mrs.  Agnes,  234. 
Adams,  Cyrus  Field,  299. 
Adams,  John,  217. 
Adams,  J.  W.,  222. 
Adams,  Lewis,  238. 
Adger,  Robert,  229. 
Aldridge,  Ira,  196,  198,  288. 
Alexander,  John  H.,  228,  247. 
Alexander,  J.  N.  W.,  254. 
Alexander,  M.   S.,  299. 
Alexander,  N.  H.,  297. 
Alexander,  William,  299. 
Alexander,  W.  G.,  222,  259. 
Allen,  B.   F.,  268. 
Allen,  G.  W.,  277. 
Allen,  Isaac  B.,  234. 
Allen,  Macon  B.,  234. 
Allen,  Richard,  191. 
Allen,  William  G.,  238. 
Allensworth,   Lt.   Col.   A.,  247. 
Allston,  J.   H.,  234. 
Allston,  Philip  J.,  234,  298,  299. 
Alstor,  J.  W.,  277. 
Ambush,  James   Enoch,  217. 
Amiger,  W.  T.,  266. 
Amo,  Anthony  William,  189. 
Anderson,  C.  H.,  296,  298. 


Antoine,  C.  C.,  220,  252. 
Appo,  William,  231. 
Archer,  H.  E.,  228,  266. 
Archer,  Mrs.  Henrietta  M.,  228. 
Armisted,  E.  H.,  234. 
Armstrong,  William  O.,  234. 
Arnett,  B.  W.,  232. 
Atkins,  S.  G.,  225,  277. 
Attway,  W.  A.,  296,  299. 
Attucks,   Crispus,   197,   200. 
Attwell  Ernest,  238. 
Attwell,  Joseph  S.,  238. 
Attwood,  L.  K.,  238. 
^Augusta,  A.  T.,  232,  247,  260. 
Augustin,  Peter,  229. 
Avant,  Henry,  299. 

Bacote,  S.  W.,  278. 
Bagnall,   Powhattan,  234. 
Bailey,  Grandmother,  229. 
Bailey,   J.    B.,   234. 
Bailey,   L.    C.,   257. 
Baker,  D.  W.,  297. 
Baker,  Gertrude  M.,  234. 
Baker,  Harry  E.,  225,  256. 
Baker,  T.  Nelson,  270. 
Baldwin,  Maria  L.,  238. 
Ballard,  W.  H.,  299. 
Banks,  Charles,  208,  298,  299. 
Banks,  Mrs.  Charles,  299. 
Banks,  J.  B.,  222. 


Anderson,    Charles    W.,    203,    208,       Banks,  Walden,  234. 


253,  299. 
Anderson,  Duke  William,  217. 
Anderson,  John  C.,  232. 
Anderson,  J.   H.,  225. 
Anderson,  Louis  B.,  228. 
Anderson,  Osborn  Perry,  231. 
Anderson,  Major  W.  T.,  247. 
Andrews,  W.  T.,  299. 
Annibal,  189. 
Annibal,  Son  of,  189. 


Banneker,  Benjamin,  189,  190,  196, 

198,  199,  257. 

Bannister,  E.  M.,  220,  287. 
Baptiste,   George   de,    239. 
Barbadoes,  James,  219. 
Barnet,  Mrs.  Ida  Wells,  201. 
Barnett,  Ferdinand  L.,  228. 
Barrier,  Anthony,  229. 
Barrier,  Miss  Ella  D.,  223. 
Bass,  Charles  T.,  299. 


399 


400 


Index  to  Names 


Basset,   E.   D.,  217,  251. 
Beale,  Mme.  I.  B.,  299. 
Beaman,  Amon  C.,  229. 
Beaman,  Jehiel  C.,  234. 
Beams,  Charlotte,  217. 
Beckett,  W.  W.,  265. 
Becraft,  Maria,  217. 
Bell,   George,  232. 
Bell,  J.  B.,  299. 
Bell,  James  M.,  231. 
Bell,  L.  A.,  297. 
Benjamin,  Edgar  P.,  234. 
Benjamin,  L.  W.,  257. 
Benjamin,  Miss  M.  E.,  257. 
Benson,  John  J.,  238. 
Benson,  William  E.,  238. 
Bentley,  C.  E.,  203,  209. 
Bergen,  Madam  Flora  B.,  201. 
Berry,  E.  C.,  238,  299. 
Bethune,  Miss  M.  M.,  266. 
Bethune,  Thomas,  220. 
Bibb,  J.  D.,  225. 
Bigham,   J.    A.,   285. 
Binga,  Jesse,  238,  299. 
Bird,  Frank  K.,  277. 
Bishop,   H.   C.,  203. 
Black,  Henry,  222. 
Blackshear,  E.  L.,  225,  268. 
Blackwell,  G.  L.,  277. 
Blair,   Henry,  258. 
Blodgett,   J.    H.,  299. 
Blue,  L.,  257. 
Bluitt,  B.  R.,  260. 
Blyden,  Edward  W.,  199. 
Bogle,  Robert,  229. 
Bonchet,  Edward  A.,  270. 
Bond,   James,    239. 
Bond,  James  A.,  299. 
Bond,  Theophilus,  299. 
Booker,  Joseph  A.,  224,  265. 
Booze,   Eugene   P.,   299. 
Boss,  Hon.  Harry,  200. 
Bowen,  Mrs.  Ariel,  225. 
Bowen,  J.  W.  E.,  203,  208,  299. 
Bowler,  Jack,  239. 
Bowser,  Mrs.  Rosa  D.,  225. 
Boyd,  B.,  239. 
Boyd,  Henry,  217. 
Boyd,    H.    A.,   299. 
Boyd,  Henry  A.,  295. 
Boyd,  R.  F.,  260,  299. 
Boyd,  R.  H.,  203,  208,  278  300. 
Bradford   James,   232. 


Bragg,  Fellow,  239. 
Braggs,  Geo.  F.,  Jr.,  225. 
Braithwaite,  William  S.,  200,  203, 

208,  284. 

Brawley,  B.  G.,  203. 
Brawley,  E.  M.,  225. 
Bray,  J.  A.,  276. 
Brooks,  Charles  H.,  298,  300. 
Brooks,  Paul  C.,  234. 
Brooks,  W.  H.,  225. 
Brown,  Aaron,  277. 
Brown,  A.  M.,  239. 
Brown,   D.    H.,   300. 
Brown,  E.   C.,  296. 
Brown,  E.  E.,  234. 
Brown,  Henry,  257. 
Brown,   Henry   E.,   239. 
Brown,  Miss  H.  Q.,  201,  203. 
Brown,  John  M.,  217. 
Brown,  Nellie,  220. 
Brown,  Richard  L.,  220. 
Brown,   Roscoe  C.,   260. 
Brown,  S.  N.,  225. 
Brown,    William    Wells,    192,    200, 

239. 

Browne,  Hugh  M.,  229. 
Bruce,  B.  K.,  196,  199,  250. 
Bruce,  Mrs.  B.  K.,  203. 
Bruce,  John  E.,  203. 
Bruce,  Roscoe  C.,  203,  209,  252. 
Bryan,  Andrew,  19. 
Bryant,  Ira  T.,  203,  209,  277,  300. 
Bryant,  W.  W.,  234. 
Buchanan,  Noah,  252. 
Buchanan,  W.  S.,  267. 
Buckner,  George  W.,  253,  254. 
Bugg,  J.   H.,  239. 
Bulkley,  W.  H.,  203. 
Bulkley,  William  L.,  270. 
Bundy,  Richard  W.,  253. 
Burkins,  Eugene,  220,  257. 
Burleigh,  Harry  T.,  200,  203,  208. 
Burns,  Anthony,  220,  229. 
Burr,  Seymour,  234. 
Burrell,  W.  P.,  239. 
Burroughs,  George  L.,  239. 
Burroughs,   Miss    Nannie   H.,  203, 

266,  278,  300. 
Burroughs,  W.  M.,  300. 
Burrows,  William,  276. 
Burwell,  L.   L.,  239,  260. 
Bush,   Anita,   200. 
Bush,  Chester  E.,  300. 


Index  to  Names 


401 


Bush,  Mrs.  Cora  E.,  300. 

Bush,  John  E.,  209,  239,  254,  298, 

300. 

Bush,  Mrs.  Olivia  Ward,  234. 
Bush,  William  H.,  203. 
Butler,  H.  R.,  225,  260. 

Cabaniss,  J.   A.,  300. 
Cain,  R.  H.,  217,  251. 
Caldwell,  J.  C.,  277. 
Caldwell,  J.  S.,  203,  277. 
Calhoun,  A.  R.,  276. 
Calhoun,  R.  C.,  300. 
Calloway,  T.  J.,  300. 
Campbell,  J.  B.,  239. 
Cannon,  George  E.,  260. 
Capitien,   James    Eliza  John,    189. 
Cardozo,  F.  L.,  232. 
Cardozo,  T.  W.,  252. 
Carey,  Lott,  217. 
Carey,  Mary  A.  S.,  217. 
Carney,  William  H.,  217. 
Carr,  James  L.,  203. 
Carroll,  Jacqueline,  234. 
Carroll,  Richard,  239,  300. 
Carson,   Simeon  L.,  260. 
Carter,  Rev.  E.  R.,  222. 
--Carter,  H.  C.,  252. 
Carter,  James  G.,  253,  300. 
Carter,  Lt.  Louis  A.,  248. 
Carter,  R.  A.,  210,  275. 
Carter,  W.  J.,  203. 
Carver,  G.  W.,  210,  269. 
Cato,  220. 

Chappelle,  Julius  B.,  234. 
Chappelle,  W.  D.,  225,  276. 
Charles,  H.  M.,  300. 
Charlton,  Melville,  220. 
Chase,  William  Calvin,  224. 
Chavis,  John,   191. 
Cheatham,  H.  P.,  251. 
Cherry,  M.  A.,  257. 
Chester,  T.  Morris,  232. 
Chestnutt,    C.    W.,    194,    195,    198, 

203,  208,  284. 
Chiles,  Nick,  210. 
Chosum,  Melvin  J.,  296. 
Chretien,  Paul,  239. 
Church,  R.  E.  Jr.,  209. 
Church,  R.  R.,  300. 
Clark,  Jonas,  234. 
Clark,  J.  Milton,  234. 
Clark,  J.  S.,  268. 


Clark,  Peter  H.,  229. 

Cleaves,  N.  C.,  275. 

Clement,  G.  C.,  277. 

Clinton,  George  W.,  209,  277,  300. 

Coard,  B.  T.,  Jr.,  296. 

Cobb,  J.  A.,  253,  300. 

Coggins,  J.  N.  C.,  278. 

Cohen,  Walter  L.,  300. 

Coker,  Daniel,  232. 

Cole,  Bob,  200,  234. 

Cole,  Rebecca  J.,  260. 

Collier,  N.  W.,  300. 

Conner,  James  M.,  276. 

Cook,  Elijah,  239. 

Cook,  Eliza  Ann,  217. 

Cook,  George  F.  T.,  199. 

Cook,  George  W.,  203,  210. 

Cook,  John  F.,  Jr.,  199. 

Cook,  John  F.,  Sr.,  199. 

Cook,  Will  Marion,  203,  208. 

Coolidge,  J.  S.,  257. 

Cooper,  Mrs.  Anna  J.,  228.     *^^ 

Cooper,  E.  J.,  228. 

Copeland,  John  Anthony,  231. 

Coppin,  Fanny  M.  Jackson,  199. 

Coppin,  L.  J.,  203,  209,  276. 

Coppin,  Thomas,  229. 

Corbin,  J.  C.,  232. 

Cornell,  A.  C.,  222. 

Cornish,  Alexander,  217. 

Corrothers,  James  D.,  220. 

Cosey,  A.   A.,  278. 

Coshburn,   Walter   M.,   222. 

Coshburn,  Mrs.  W.  M.,  222. 

Costin,  Louisa  Parke,  217. 

Costin,  Martha,  232. 

Costin,  William,  217. 

Cottrell,  Charles,  253. 

Cottrell,  Elias,  239,  275,  300. 

Council,  W.  H.,  222. 

Coursey,  Robert  F.,  234. 

Courtney,  S.  E.,  210,  260,  299,  300. 

Covington,  John,  300. 

Cowan  A.  C.,  300. 

Cox,  J.  M.,  226,  266. 

Cox,  W.  Alexander,  235,  300. 

Cox,  W.  W.,  300. 

Craft,  Henry  K.,  239. 

Crafts,  William,  229. 

Crafts,   Mrs.   William,   229. 

Crawford,  Joshua,  235. 

Crogman,  William  Henry,  203,  209. 

Cromwell,  J.  W.,  226. 


402 


Index  to  Names 


Crowdy,  William,  235. 
Crowther,  Samuel,  239. 
Crum,  W.  D.,  239. 
Crum,  W.  E.,  235. 
Crummel,  Alexander,  196,  197, 

285. 

Crummell,  Boston,  239. 
Cuffe,  John,  218. 
Cuffe,  Paul,  196,   199. 
Cugoano,  Ottobah,  189. 
Cummings,  Harry  S.,  203. 
Curtis,  Bishop,  239. 
Curtis,  A.  M.,  203,  259,  260. 
Curtis,  James  L.,  200,  203. 
Curtis,  J.  Webb,  228. 
Custalo,  William,  222. 

Dabney,  Austin,  239. 
Dailey,  Sam,  239. 
Dailey,  U.  G.,  260. 
Dalton,  Thomas,  235. 
Dancey,  J.  C.,  203,  209,  278. 
Dandridge,  Ann,  218. 
Dangerfield,  Newby,  231. 
Daniels,  Jim,  231. 
Darden,  J.  H.,  222. 
Darden,  John  W.,  260. 
Davage,  M.  S.,  278. 
Davidson,  Shelby,  257. 
Davis,  A.  K.,  220,  252. 
Davis,  Mrs.  Belle,  300. 
Davis,  B.  J.,  209. 
Davis,  B.  O.,  209,  248. 
Davis,  Charles  T.,  300. 
Davis,  D.  W.,  226. 
Davis,  George  W.,  300. 
Davis,  Henrietta  Vinton,  201. 
Davis,  I.  D.,  226. 
Davis,  Mrs.  L.  A.,  222. 
Davis,  W.  R.,  257. 
Day,  J.   Howard,  229. 
Day,  William  Howard,  239. 
Dean,  Jennie,  239. 

De  Grasse,  John  V.,  218,  260. 

— Delancey,  Martin  R.,  230. 
De  Large,  R.  C.,  220,  251. 
De  Mortie,  Louise,  218,  235. 
De  Mortie,  Mark,  235. 
Dennison,  F.  A.,  203,  209. 
Derrick,  W.  B.,  224. 
Dett,  R.  N.,  203. 
Deveaux,  John  H.,  239. 
Dickerson,  William  F.,  218. 


Dickinson,  J.  H.,  257. 
Dickson,  Rev.  Moses,  239. 
Diffay,  J.  O.,  295. 
Diggs,  J.  R.  L.,  270. 
199,       Dillon,  Dr.  Sadie,  239. 

Dogan,  M.  W.,  210,  266. 
Dorsett,  C.  N.,  239,  260. 
Dorsey,  Thomas  L.,  230. 
Dossen,  Vice-President,  240. 
Douglass,  Charles  R.,  230,  240. 
Douglass,  Frederick,  192,  196,  197, 

198,  199,  200,  210,  252,  288. 
^-Douglass,  H.  Ford,  230. 
Douglass,  J.  H.,  203. 
Douglass,  Lewis   H.,  230. 
Douglass,  W.,  257. 
Downing,  George  T.,  230. 
Downing,  Thomas,  230. 
Doyle,  James,  258. 
Draper,   Garrison,  232. 
Drew,  Howard  P.,  200. 
Drury,  Theodore,  235. 
Du  Bois,  W.  E.  B.,  195,  197,  198, 

200,  203,  207,  270,  284. 
Dubuclet  240. 
Duckery,  Henry,  235. 
Dudley,  James  B.,  267. 
Dumas,  Alexandre,  188,  197,  200. 
Dumas,   A.   W.,   260. 
Dunbar,  Chas.    B.,  260. 
Dunbar,   Paul   Laurence,   194,   195, 

197,  198,  199,  200,  210,  224,  284, 

285. 

Dunbar,  Mrs.  Paul  Laurence,  226. 
Dungee,  A.  C.,  300. 
Dunlop,  Alexander,  240. 
Dunn,  Oscar  J.,  220,  252. 
Duprey,  William,  235. 
Durham,  James,  189,  191,  196,  260. 
Dyson,  Walter,  285. 

Earnest  Louis,  222. 
Easton,  Hosea,  235. 
Easton,  Joshua,  235. 
Edmonds,  T.   H.,  257. 
Eggleston,    E.    F.,    240. 
Elbert,  S.  G.,  299,  300. 
Elbert,  Mrs.  S.  G.,  300. 
Ellerson,  L.  B.,  226. 
Elliot,  R.  B.,  196,  199,  251. 
Elliott,  J.  T.,  299. 
Elliott,  T.  J.,  300. 
Emanuel,  J.,  300. 


Index  to  Names 


403 


Europe,  James  Resse,  200,  203. 
Evans,  Henry,  191. 
Evans,  Matilda  A.,  240. 
Evans,  Mrs.  S.  J.,  228. 
Evans,  Wm.  P.,  300. 

Ferguson,  John  C.,  260. 
Ferguson,  Joseph,  260. 
Ferguson,  S.  D.,  203,  278. 
Fields,  W.  R.,  240. 
Fisher,  D.  A.,  257. 
Fleet,  John  H.,  218. 
Flipper,  Henry  O.,  247. 
Flipper,  J.  S.,  204,  276. 
Floyd,  Silas  X.,  220. 
Ford,  C.  E.,  300. 
Ford,  J.  E.,  210. 
Forten,  Miss  Charlotte,  218. 
Forton,  James,  192,  258. 
Fortune,  T.  Thomas,  195,  204,  208. 
Fountain,  W.  A.,  265. 
France,  Joseph  J.,   260. 
Frances,  J.  W.,  296. 
Francis,  J.  R.,  226,  228. 
Francis,  William,  189. 
Franklin,  G.  W.,  300. 
Franklin,  Nicholas,  218. 
Frence,  John  B.,  228. 
Frierson,  A.  U.,  226. 
Fuller,  S.  C.,  204,  208,  260. 
Fuller,  Mrs.  S.  C.,  See  Meta  Vaux 

Warrick. 

Fuller,  Thomas,  189,  190. 
Furniss,  Henry  W.,  204,  254. 
Furniss,  S.  A.,  300. 

Gabriel,  218. 
Gaones,  John  S.,  240. 
Gamble,  H.  F.,  260. 
Ganes,  John  F.,  230. 
Gardner,  Eliza,  235. 
Garland,  C.  N.,  235,  260. 
Garner,  James  E.,  301. 
Garner,  J.  H.,  301. 
Garnett,  H.  H.,  196,  197,  199. 
Garrett,  Thomas,  220. 
Gaskins,  Nelson,  235. 
Gates,  George  A.,  301. 
Gell,  Monday,  220. 
Geoffray,  L'Islet,  189. 
Gibbs,  Miss  Hattie,  222. 
Gibbs,  J.  C.,  219. 


Gibbs,  Miffin  Wistar,  192,  301. 

Gibson,  G.  W.,  240. 

Gilbert,  F.  H.,  298,  301. 

Gilbert,  J.  W.,  226,  276. 

Gilbert,  M.  W.,  226,  276. 

Gillian,  C.  W.,  301. 

Girideau,  W.  L.,  301. 

Gladden,  Lt.  W.  W.,  248. 

Cleaves,  R.  H.,  220,  252. 

Gleed,  Robert,  252. 

Gloucester,  John,  191. 

Goddard,  Julius  B.,  235. 

Goiens,  John  W.,  269. 

Goler,  W.  H.,  204,  265,  278. 

Gomez,  General  Maximo,  228,  248. 

Goodwin,  G.  A.,  226. 

Gordon,  Henry,  240. 

Gordon,  James  H.,  301. 

Gordon,  Nora  A.,  222. 

Gordon,  Sarah,  240. 

Gordon,  W.  C.,  299,  301. 

Graham,  A.  A.,  301. 

Grant,  Bishop  A.,  224,  301. 

Grant,  George  F.,  235. 

Gray,  F.  A.,  301. 

Gray,  Miss  Mary  A.,  301. 

Gray,  William,  240. 

Green,  Benjamin  T.,  240. 

Green,  Charles  Henry,  232. 

Green,  E.  E.,  260. 

Green,  John,  224. 

Green,  Lt.  J.  E.,  248. 

Green,  John  P.,  218. 

Green,  Shields,  231. 

Green,  S.  W.,  210. 

Greener,  R.  T.,  196,  197,  208,  220. 

Gregory,  J.   M.,  204. 

Grigg,  John  A.,  265. 

Griggs,  E.  M.,  296. 

Griggs,  Sutton  E.,  210,  278. 

Grimes,  Leonard,  218. 

Grimke,  Archibald  H.,  204,  208. 

Grimke,  F.  J.,  194,  204,  208. 

Gross,  F.  W.,  265. 

Gross,  William  E.,  240. 

Groves,  C.  A.,  301. 

Groves,  J.  G.,  301. 

Groves,  Marjory,  235. 

Hackley,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  220. 
Hale,  W.  J.,  210,  267. 
Hall,  Mrs.  Anna  M.,  218. 
Hall,  Charles  H.,  235. 


404 


Index  to  Names 


Hall,  G.  C.,  204,  208,  240,  259,  260, 

299. 

Hall,  Primus,  230. 
Hall,  Prince,  240. 
Hall,  R.  M.,  240. 
Hall,  Walter   P.,  301. 
Hamilton,  R.  T.,  260. 
Hamlett,  J.  A.,  276. 
Hamlin,  J.  A.,  301. 
Hamm,  James  R.,  301. 
Hansberry,  E.,  223. 
Haralson,  Jare,  240,  251. 
Hargrave,  F.  S.,  260. 
Harlan,  Robert,  232. 
Harllee,  N.  W.,  226. 
Harper,  Fenton,  240. 
Harper,  Frances  E.,  201. 
Harper,  Mrs.  F.  E.  W.,  192. 
Harper,  William  A.,  287. 
Harris,  Charles  E.,  235. 
Harris,  C.  R.,  277. 
Harris,  Mrs.  Carol  V.,  301. 
Harris,  Gilbert  C.,  235,  301. 
Harris,  J.  H.,  301. 
Harris,  T.  N.,  240. 
Harrison,   Hazel,   220. 
Harrod,  W.  A.,  279. 
Hart,  Mrs.,  228. 
Hart,  W.  H.  H.,  204. 
Hatcher,  Henry  A.,  301. 
Hatter,  Allen,  301. 
Havis,  Ferdinand,  210. 
Hawkins,  J.  R.,  204,  209,  277,  301. 
Hawkins,  Mason  A.,  204. 
-Hawkins,  T.  S.,  240. 
Hawkins,  W.  Ashbie,  204. 
Hayden,  Lewis,  192. 
Hayes,  Alexander,  218. 
Haynes,  George  E.,  209,  270. 
Haynes,  Lemuel,  191,  196,  198. 
Hayes,  Roland  W.,  204. 
Hayes,  Thomas  H.,  299,  301. 
Hazel,  William  A.,  235. 
Heard,  W.  H.,  226,  276. 
Hemmings,  Robert,  235. 
Hendley,  Willie  M.,  269. 
Henry,  Sam,  252. 
Henson,  Josiah,  232. 
Henson,  Mathews,  200,  240. 
Herndon,  A.  F.,  210. 
Hershaw,  L.  M.,  204. 
Hewin,  J.  T.,  226. 
Hewitt,  W.  V.,  301. 


Hewlett,  E.  M.,  240. 
Hibbler,  John  A.,  301. 
Higgins,  W.  H.,  260. 
Higiemonde,  188. 
Hill,  James,  252. 
Hill,  J.  S.,  296. 
Hill,  Mrs.  L.,  240. 
Hill,  L.  P.,  240. 
Hills,  J.  Seth,  260. 
Hilton,  John  T.,  235. 
Hilyer,  A.  F.,  226,  257. 
Hoagland,  George,  301. 
Hodges,  M.  Hamilton,  235. 
Hogan,  Ernest,  200. 
Holloway,    Richard,    240. 
Holloway,  T.  B.,  296. 
Hollowell,  William,  230. 
Holly,  J.  T.,  240. 
Holmes,  William   E.,  223,  265. 
Hood,  J.  W.,  204,  209,  277. 
Holsey,  L.  H.,  204,  275. 
Holtzclaw,  W.  H.,  301. 
Hope,  John,  204,  208,  265. 
Hort,  Mrs.  Emma  T.,  223. 
Horton,  George,  232. 
Hosier,  Harry,  240. 
Houston,  R.  C.,  298. 
Howard,  A.  C.,  301. 
Howard,  Alexander  S.,  301. 
Howard,  E.  C.,  260. 
Howard,    P.    W.,    301. 
Howell,  G.  M.,  301. 
Howell,  S.  A.,  297. 
Hubbard,   A.,  240. 
Hubert,  Z.  T.,  265. 
Hudson,  R.  B.,  278. 
Hull,  D.  J.,  265. 
Hunt,  A.  H.,  235. 
Hunt,  H.  A.,  226. 
Hunt,  William  H.,  224,  253. 
Hunter,  John  E.,  260. 
Hunton,  W.  A.,  204,  210. 
Hurst,  John  E.,  204,  209,  276. 
Hurst,  S.  P.,  301. 
Hyer,  The  Sisters,  220. 
Hyrnan,  John,  240,  251. 

Isaacs,  E.  W.  D.,  204,  278. 
Ish,  I.  G.,  224. 

Jackson,  A.  B.,  260,  299. 
Jackson,  A.  D.,  285. 
Jackson,  A.  S.,  277. 


Index  to  Names 


405 


Jackson,  Deal,  240. 

Jackson,  George  H.,  254. 

Jackson,  Jennie,  240. 

Jackson,  J.  C.,  299,  301. 

Jackson,  J.   S.,  278. 

Jackson,  Miss  Lena  T.,  226. 

Jackson,  Mary  C.,  228. 

Jackson,  T.  J.,  296. 

Jackson,  William  L.,  232. 

Jacobs,  C.  C.,  278. 

Jacobs,  H.  P.,  252. 

Jack,  Uncle,  275. 

Jamison,  M.  F.,  275. 

Janifer,  J.  T.,  277. 

Jason,  W.  C.,  268. 

Jasper,  John,  240. 

Jefferson,   E.   B.,  301. 

Jenifer,  J.  T.,  204,  210. 

Jenkins,  O.  C.,  240. 

Jenkins,  S.  J.,  223. 

Jennings,  Cordelia  A.,  240. 

Jennings,  Mrs.  Mary  F.,  240. 

Johnson,  296. 

Johnson,  Mrs.  A.  E.,  284. 

Johnson,  A.  N.,  301. 

Johnson,   Billy,  235. 

Johnson,  C.  F.,  210,  301. 

Johnson,  Elijah,  220. 

Johnson,  Harvey,  204. 

Johnson,  H.  L.,  204. 

Johnson,  H.  T.,  210. 

Johnson,  J.  A.,  204,  210,  276. 

Johnson,  J.  O.,  226. 

Johnson,    J.    Rosamond,    200,    204, 

209. 

Johnson,  John  Thomas,  232. 
Johnson,  James  W.,  201,  204,  208, 

226,  254. 

Johnson,  L.  E.,  240. 
Johnson,  Peter  A.,  260. 
Johnson,   Sol.   C.,  241. 
Johnson,  W.  Bishop,  279. 
Johnson,   W.   H.,  301. 
Johnson,  W.   I.,  301. 
Jones,  Mme.   (Black  Patti),  201. 
Jones,  Absolom,  220. 
Jones,  A.  D.,  260. 
Jones,  E.  M.,  278. 
Jones,  E.  P.,  301. 
Jones,  Miss  Hazel  K.,  302. 
Jones,   Henry,  229. 
Jones,  John,  230. 
xjones,  J.   G.,  241. 


Jfones,  J.  H.,  226. 
Jones,  Joshua  M.,  276. 
Jones,  John  W.,  261. 
Jones,  Miles  B.,  260. 
Jones,  R.  E.,  204,  208,  278,  299,  302. 
Jones,  Scipio  A.,  210,  299,  302. 
Jones,  Sissieretta,  201. 
Jones,  T.  W.,  226,  302. 
Jones,  Wiley,  241. 
Jordan,  D.  J.,  226. 
Jordan,  L.  G.,  204,  209,  279,  302. 
Josenberger,  Mrs.  Mary,  302. 
Juan,  229. 
Just,  E.  E.,  204,  209. 

Kealing,  H.  T.,  195,  204,  209,  266. 

Keatts,  Chester  W.,  224. 

Keatts,  C.  W.,  302. 

Kelly,  James,  223. 

Kennedy,  W.  A.,  302. 

Kenney,'  J.  A.,  241,  261. 

Kerr,  S.,  226. 

Kersey,  Willis   A.,  302. 

Keys,  H.  W.,  302. 

King,  G.  H.,  223. 

King,  Horace,  223. 

King,   H.   H.,  302. 

King,  J.  T.,  223. 

King,  M.  N.,  223. 

King,  W.  E.,  209. 

King,  W.  W.,  223. 

Knight,  D.  L.,  302. 

Knox,  George  L.,  226. 

Kyles,  L.  W.,  278. 

Lafon,  Thorny,  220. 

Lambert  family,  241. 

Lambert,  William,  219. 

Lane,  Isaac,  241,  275. 

Lane,  J.  F.,  265. 

Lane,  Lunsford,  192,  193. 

Lane,  W.  C.,  235. 

Laney,  Lucy,  204. 

Lankford,  J.  A.,  302. 

Langford,  Sam,  207. 

Langston,  John  M.,  196,  197,  199, 

251. 

Lattimore,  Andrew  E.,  235. 
Latimer,  George,  235. 
Lavalette,  W.  A.,  257. 
Lawrence,  W.  P.,  279. 
Lawson,  R.   Augustus,  204. 
Leary,  John,  S.,  232. 


406 


Index  to  Names 


Leary,  Lewis  S.,  231. 

Leary,  Matthew,  241. 

Leary,  Matthew,  Jr.,  241. 

Lee,  Bertina,  220,  287. 

Lee,  B.  F.,  204,  208,  276. 

Lee,  Joseph,  235,  254. 

Lee  M.  D.,  278. 

Lehman,  M.  J.,  223. 

Leile,  George,  191. 

Levy,  J.  R.,  261,  302. 
_  I,ewis,  A.  L.,  302. 

Lewis,  Edmonia,  201,  287. 
>— Lewis,  James,  204. 

Lewis,  J.  H.,  235,  302. 

Lewis,  John  W.,  296. 

Lewis,  M.  N.,  302. 

Lewis,  W.  H.,  201,  204,  207,  254. 

Lewis,  W.  I.,  226. 

Lights,  F.  L.,  297. 

Lindsay,  Samuel,  297. 

Livingston,  Lemuel  W.,  254. 

Logan,  Warren,  205,  210,  302. 

Logan,  Mrs.  Warren,  226. 

Loguen,  Bishop,  218. 

Long,  Jefferson,   241,  251. 

Loudin,  F.  J.,  257. 

Lovett,  William  C.,  236. 

Lovinggood,  R.  S.,  266. 

Lowe,  J.   L,  277. 

Lowry,   Samuel,  232. 

Lowther,   George   W.,   236. 

Lucas,  Sam,  201. 

Lucas,  W.  W.,  223,  278. 

Lugrade,  S.   L.,  241. 

Lundy,   Benjamin,  230. 

Lynch,  James,  252. 

Lynch,  John  R.,  205,  208,  248,  251. 

Lynk,  M.  V.,  266. 

Lytle,  Miss  Lutie  A.,  228. 

McCarthy,  Anthony,  302. 
McCarty,  Owen,  241. 
McCary,  William,  252. 
Maceo,  248. 

McClennon,  A.  C.,  261. 
McClellan,  G.  M.,  226. 
McCord,  Sam,  241. 
McCoy,  Benjamin  M.,  218. 
McCoy,  E.,  205,  257. 
McCoy,  Elijah  T.,  198. 
McCrorey,   H.   L.,  265. 
McCulloch,  J.  B.,  302. 
McDaniel,  E.  E.,  302. 


McDonald,  J.  Frank,  277. 
McDonald,  W.  H.,  296. 
McDonough,  David   K.,  261. 
McDuffy,  J.  D.,  302. 
McGilbray,  D.  C.,  302. 
McKane,  Cornelius,  236. 
McKee,  John,  220. 
McKinley,  J.  Frank,  228. 
McKinley,  Whitfield,  254. 
McKissack,  E.  H.,  241,  302. 
McKissack,  Moses,  302. 
Majors,  W.  L.,  302. 
Margetson,  G.  Reginald,  236. 
Marshall,  John  R.,  205. 
Marshall,   Napoleon   B.,  236. 
Martin,  J.  A.,  268. 
Martin,  J.  C.,  276. 
Martin,  John  Sella,  236. 
Martin,  Martha  and  sister,  232. 
Martin,  William  M.,  228. 
Mason,  Cassius,  205. 
Mason,  Mrs.  I^ena,  226. 
Mason,  M.  C.  B.,  226,  302. 
Mason,  U.  G.,  241. 
Mathews,   William    E.,   230. 
Matthews,  James  C.,  205. 
Matthews,  Victoria  E.,  241. 
Matthews,  W.   Clarence,  236. 
Matzeliger,  J.  E.,  220,  257. 
Maxwell,  Leigh  R.,  223. 
Merrick,  John,  241. 
Middleton,  Charles  H.,  218. 
Miles,   Alexander,  228. 
Miles,  Mary  E.,  232. 
Miller,    Kelly,    194,    195,   201,   205, 

207,  285,  302. 
Miller,  T.  H.,  241,  251. 
Minton,  F.  J.,  302. 
Minton,  Henry,  229. 
—Mitchell,  Charlie  L.,  218. 
Mitchell,  John,  205. 
Mitchell,  John,  Jr.,  208. 
Mitchell,  Mrs.  Nellie  B.,  236. 
Mitchell,   Robert,   279. 
Mitchell,  S.  T.,  232. 
Mitchell,  W.  L.,  297. 
Mollison,   W.   E.,   205. 
Montgomery,    Ben,    241. 
Montgomery,   I.   T.,  205,  208,  252, 

302. 

Montgomery,  Thornton,  241. 
Moody,  O.  L.,  266. 
Moore,  A.  M.,  261. 


Index  to  Names 


407 


Moore,  Alice  Ruth,  220. 

Moore,  Fred  R.,  209,  254. 

Moore,  G.  W.,  205,  278. 

Moore,  J.  H.,  276. 

Moore,  Lewis  B.,  205,  270. 

Moore,   T.   Clay,  302. 

Moorland,  J.  E.,  205,  208. 

Moreland,  John  F.,  278. 

Morgan,  B.  J.,  302. 

Morgan,  Clement  G.,  236. 

Morgan,  J.  H.,  226. 

Morris,  Albert,  241. 

Morris,  E.  C.,  205,  208,  279,  302. 

Morris,  E.  H.,  194,  205,  208. 

Morris,  Freeman,  241. 

Morris,  J.,  232. 

Morris,  Robert,  232. 

Morris,  W.  R.,  205. 

Mosby,   John   M.,   296. 

Mossell,   N.  F.,  205,  209,  261. 

Moten,  Lucy,  205. 

Moton,   R.   R.,  201,   205,  207,  269, 

302. 

Mott,  Lucretia,  229. 
Moultry,  Francis  J.,  241. 
Murphy,   W.    O.,   302. 
Murray,  Daniel,  205. 
Murray,  G.  W.,  226,  251,  257. 
Murray,   J.   L.,   223. 
Muse,    Lindsay,    218. 
Myers,  Cyrus,  223. 
Myers,  George  A.,  241. 
Myers,  Stephen  J.,  230. 

Nance,  L.,  257. 

Napier,  J.   C.,  205,  208,  254,  299, 

302. 

Napier,  Mrs.  J.  C.,  302. 
Nash,  Charles  E.,  241,  251. 
Neighbors,  W.  D.,  295,  302. 
Nell,  William,  232,  236. 
Nelson,  Dave,  302. 
Nelson,  Ida  Gray,  228. 
Nesbitt,  F.  M.,  303. 
Newby,  Dangerfield,  231. 
Newton,   Osborn    A.,   236. 
Nickens,  Owen  T.  B.,  241. 
Norman,  M.  W.  D.,  223. 
Nunn,  Charles,  303. 

O'Connell,    Pezavia,    270. 
O'Connor,  257. 
Ogden,  Peter,  241. 


O'Harra,  J.  E.,  231,  251. 

O'Kelly,  Berry,  303. 

O'Kelley,  C.  G.,  265. 

Olandad,  189. 

Olney,  D.  W.,  226. 

Oncles,   Father,  205. 

Osborn,   Perry  Anderson,  231. 

Ossie,  Keebe,  241. 

Othello,  189. 

Otis,  Joseph  E.,  241. 

Outlaw,  John  S.,  261. 

Owens,  Mrs.  R.  C.,  303. 

Pace,  Dinah,  241. 

Page,  Inman  E.,  268,  303. 

Palmer,  John  H.,  269. 

Palmer,  Loring   B.,  261. 

Pamphlet,  Gowan,  232. 

Parker,  James  B.,  224. 

Parker,  Inez  C.,  284. 

Parks,  H.  B.,  205,  276. 

Parks,  Thomas  F.,  303. 

Parks,  W.  G.,  279. 

Parrish,  C.  H.,  303. 

Partee,  W.  E.,  226. 

Patrick,  Thomas  W.,  236. 

Patterson,  Fred  D.,  303. 

Patterson,   Spenser,  303. 

Paul,  Thomas,  236. 

Payne,  Christopher  H.,  254. 

Payne,  D.  A.,  196,  199. 

Payne,  G.  A.,  265. 

Payton,  F.  A.,  Jr.,  303. 

Pelham,   R.,  258. 

Penn,  I.  G.,  205,  209,  241,  278. 

Perm,  W.   F.,  261. 

Pennington,  J.  W.  C.,  196. 
I    Perdue,  A.  C.,  303. 
\  Perry,  Christopher,  210. 
\Perry,  C.  W.,  241. 

\Peters,  "Dr.",  236. 

peters,  E.  S.,  303. 

Peters,  John,  220. 

PJeters,  Phyllis  Wheatley,  189,  190, 

{ J96,  198,  199,  201,  202,  210,  284. 

Peterson,  B.  H.,  226. 

Peterson,  James  T.,  303. 

Peterson,  John,  241. 

Pettey,  Mrs.,  226. 

Petti  ford,  W.  R.,  303. 

Phelps,  Mrs.  Mary  Rice,  223. 

Phillips,  C.  H.,  205,  275. 

Phillips,  Henry  L.,  205. 


408 


Index  to  Names 


Pickens,  William,  208. 

Pierce,  Charles,  218. 
— Pinchback,  Napoleon,  241. 
— Pinchback,  P.  B.  S.,  205,  209,  252, 
253. 

Pinheiro,  Don  T.,  236. 

Pitts,  Coffin,  236. 

Platt,   Miss    Ida,   223. 

Pledger,  William  A.,  224. 

Plummer,  "Elder,"  236. 

Poindexter,  James,  218. 

Pollard,  L.  M.,  241. 

Pompey,  R.  S.,  269. 

Ponton,  M.  M.,  265. 

Pope,  James  W.,  236. 

Porter,  J.  R.,  226. 

Porter,  L.  M.,  303. 

Porter,   Maggie,  241. 

Porter,  Troy,  303. 

Porter,  W.  M.,  303. 

Powell,  B.  F.,  223. 

Powell,  Clayton,  201. 

Powell,  Holland,  279. 

Pratt,  Harry  T.,  303. 

Price,  J.  C.,  199,  241,  288. 

Prillerman,  Byrd,  268. 

Prioleau,  G.  W.,  248. 

Procter,  H.  H.,  209. 

Prosser,  229. 

Prout,  John,  232. 

Purcell,  I.  L.,  226. 
— Purvis,  C.  B.,  241,  261. 

Purvis,  Robert,  192,  196. 

Purvis  W.   B.,  220,  257. 

Pushkin,   Alexander,   188. 

Quinn,  William  Paul,  218. 

Rainey,  J.  H.,  220,  251. 

Rakestraw,  W.  M.,  269. 

Rankin,  J.  W.,  277. 

Ransier  A.  J.,  220,  251,  252. 

Ransom,  R.  C.,  205,  209,  277. 

Raphard,  Father,  280. 

Rapier,  James  T.,  220,  251,  261. 

Ray,  Charles  M.,  230. 

Ray,  Charlotte.  241. 

Ray,  E.  P.,  257. 

Ray,  Peter  Williams,  261. 

Raymond,  John  T.,  236. 

Raymond,  Theodore  H.,  236. 

Reason,  Charles  L.,  232. 


Redmond,  Sarah,  232. 
Redmond,  S.  C.,  241. 
Redmond,  S.  D.,  303. 
Redwine,  W.  A.,  296. 
Reed,  L.  S.,  242. 
Reed,  William  L.,  236. 
Reeve,  J.  B.,  205. 
Reid,  Dow,  242. 
Reid,  Frank,  242. 
Remond,  C.  L.,  192,  196. 
Revels,  Hiram  R.,  220,  250,  253. 
Reynolds,  H.  H.,  257. 
Rich,  William,  230. 
Richards,    Fannie,    233. 
Richardson,    A.    St.    George,    226. 
Richey,    C.    V.,   258. 
Riddick,    J.    F.,    297. 
Ridley,   Mrs.    U.   A.,   242. 
Rischer,    H.    K.,    242. 
Roberts,    E.    P.,    209,    261. 
Roberts,  D.   R.,  233. 
Roberts,    Isaac    L.,    236. 
Roberts,  Thomas  Wright,  218. 
Roberson,  W.    E.,  303. 
Robinson,   David   R.,   236. 
Robinson,    E.    A.,    298. 
Robinson,    G.    T.,    226. 
Robinson,    J.    P.,    224. 
Robinson,    Mrs.    Leila,    303. 
Robinson,   Mrs.    M.    A.,   223. 
Robinson,    R.    G.,    227. 
Rock,    David,    236. 
Rock,   John   S.,  242. 
Rollins,    Wade    C.,   303. 
Roman,    C.    V.,    209,   261. 
Resell,    David,    261. 
Ross,  A.  W.,  230,  242. 
Ross,  John,  85. 
Ross,   J.    O.,   296,   303. 
Rosser,    L.    E.,    276. 
Roundtree,    P.    C.,    303. 
Rucker,   H.   A.,  205,  303. 
Ruffin,   G.   L.,   230. 
Ruffin,  Mrs.  J.  St.  P.,  205. 
Ruffin,    Stanley,    236. 
Ruggles,    David,    242. 
Russell,    G.    P.,   268. 
Russell,    James    S.,    242. 
Russwurm,   J.    B.,    192,    196. 
Rutling,  Thomas,  242. 

Saffell,    Mrs.    Daisy,    303. 
St.  Benedict,  The  Moor,  242. 


Index  to  Names 


409 


St.    Pierre,   John,  242. 
Salem,  Peter,  242. 
Sampson,    Benjamin,   242. 
Sampson,    B.    K,   233. 
Sampson,    George    M.,    242. 
Sampson,   James   D.,   242. 
Sancho,    Ignatius,    189. 
Sanders,    D.    J.,   223. 
Sanderson,    Thomas,    242. 
Sanford,  J.  M.,  297. 
Sanford,  J.  S.,  304. 
Sanifer,  J.  M.,  242. 
Saunders,  M.  P.,  303. 
Sawner,  G.  W.   F.,  303. 
Sawner,  Mrs.   Lena,  303. 
Sawyer,   E.   J.,   303. 
Scarborough,  W.  S.,  198,  205,  208, 

266. 

Scarlett,  John  E.,  236. 
Scott,      Emmett      J.,      205,      207, 

298. 

Scott,    I.    B.,   205,   210,   278. 
Scott,  J.  J.,  296. 
Scott,  Lt.   O.  J.  W.,   248. 
Scott,   Walter,   242. 
Scott,  W.  A.,  303. 
Scott,    Wilkerson    and    Scott,   303. 
Scott,   William   E.,   205. 
Scottron,   S.    R.,  303. 
Scruggs,  B.  E.,  223. 
Searcy,  T.  J.,  303. 
Sejour,    Victor,    242. 
Selika,   Madam,   202. 
Seme,  Pixley   Isaka,  242. 
Shadd,   Mary   Ann,  233. 
Shadwell,   G.   W.,   303. 
Shaffer,   C.   T.,  205,   276. 
Shaw,   M.   A.    N.,   236. 
Shaw,   Mrs.   Mary   E.,   242. 
Shepard,  C.  H.,  261. 
Shepherd,   H.  C.,  303. 
Sheppard,  Mr.,  242. 
Sheppard,  Ella,  242. 
Sheppard,  W.  H.,  242. 
Shirley,   Thomas,   229. 
—Shorter,  James,  218. 
Shorter,  Mrs.  J.  A.,  242. 
Sidney,  Thomas,  233. 
Simms,  S.  William,  236. 
Sims,  W.  H.,  303. 
Sinclair,  285. 

Sinclair,  William   A.,  220. 
Singleton,   David,  253. 


Singleton,   Huston,   223. 

Slater,   T.    H.,   261. 

Smalls,  Robert,  205,  251,  255. 

Smiley,   Charles   H.,  242. 

Smith,  Albretta  Moore,  223. 

Smith,   Alfred,   242,   303. 

Smith,    Mrs.    Amanda,   202. 

Smith,   B.   S.,  205. 

Smith,   Blanche,  V.,  236. 

Smith,  C.   S.,  205,  209,  276. 

Smith,    Eleanor    A.,   236. 

Smith,  Harriet,  237. 

Smith,    H.   C.,  205. 

Smith,  Mrs.  Hannah  G.,  236. 

Smith,   Isaac    H.,   296,   304. 

Smith,  Joshua  B.,  237. 

Smith,    James    McCune,    196,   242, 
261. 

Smith,  Mary  E.,  237. 

Smith,  Mrs.  M.   E.  C.,  227. 

Smith,  R.  L.,  209,  304. 

Smith,    R.   S.,   227. 

Smith,  Stephen,  229. 

Smith,  Wilford  H.,  195,  304. 

Smythe,  John  H.,  227,  242. 

Snow,    Benjamin,    218. 

Snowden,  John  Baptist,  233. 

Spaulding,  C.  C.,  304. 

Sprague,  Mrs.  Rosetta  D.,  227. 

Stafford,    A.   O.,   220. 

Stanley,   Alexander,   242. 

Stanley,    Charles,    242. 
Stanley,  John,  242. 
Stanley,  John  C.,  242. 
Stanley,  J.   P.,  297. 
Stanton,  J.  C.,  276. 
Starks,  J.  R.,  276. 
Steele,    Carrie,    242. 
Stephenson,  J.   B.,  304. 
Sterrs,  Alexander,  242. 
Sterrs,   Willis   E.,   261. 
Stevenson,    William,   237. 
Steward,  T.  G.,  206,  209,  248. 
Stewart,  Austin,  218. 
Stewart,  F.  A.,  242,  261. 
Stewart,   G.   W.,   275. 
Stewart,    Logan    H.,    299. 
Stewart,    T.    McCants,    233. 
Still,  Charity,  223. 
Still,   James,   237. 
Still,  Peter,  242. 
Still,  William,  192. 
Stokes,  A.  J.,  279. 


410 


Index  to  Names 


Storum,  James,  227. 
Stout,   R.   S.,  276. 
Straker,  D.  A.,  223. 
Strauther,   J.    M.,   304. 
Street,  H.  Gordon,  237. 
Stringer,   T.   W.,  253. 
Strong,  J.   W.,  265. 
Stubbs,  Julian,  237. 
Suggs,  D.  C.,  243. 
Sutton,  E.  H.,  257. 

Talbert,  Mary  B.,  227. 
Taliaferro,  C.  T.,  304. 
Talley,  T.  W.,  227. 
Tandy,  H.  A.,  304. 
Taniel,  R.  F.,  297. 


Troumontaine,  Julian,  233. 
Trower,   John  S.,  243,   304. 
Truth,    Sojourner,    192,    196,    197, 

199,   202. 

Tubman,   Harriet,   192. 
Tucker,   261. 
Tucker,  A.  L.,  297. 
Tucker,  E.   D.,  304. 
(Tucker,  T.  de  S.,  227. 
Tulane,  Victor  H.,  243. 
Tunnell,  W.  V.,  206. 
Turnbo,   Mrs.   Pope,   304. 
Turner,  Benjamin  S.,  243,  251. 
Turner,   C.    H.,   206,   210,   270. 
Turner,  H.  M.,  218,  247,  276. 
Turner,  M.  W.,  304. 


Tanner,  B.   T.,  198,  206,  210,  276.       'Turner,  Nat,  218. 
Tanner,    Henry  O.,   194,   197,   198,       Twe,  Dihdwo,  237. 

199,    200,    201,    206,    208,    210,      Tyler,   Ralph  W.,  210,  255. 


i    287. 

Tate,  W.  A.,  269. 

Taylor,    Hilliard,    304. 

Taylor  Major,  201. 

Taylor,  Marshall  W.,  218. 

Taylor,  Preston,  304. 

Taylor,  R.  R.,  243. 

Taylor,  S.  Coleridge,  197,  201. 

Taylor,  W.  L.,  194. 

Teamoh,   Robert   T.,  237. 

Terrell,  Father  of  R.  H.,  233. 

Terrell,    Mrs.    Mary    Church,    202, 

206. 

Terrell,   Mother  of  Mary  C.,   233. 
Terrell,     R.     H.,    206,     208,     253, 

258. 

Terrs,  Holmes,  304. 
Terry,   Watt,  304. 
Thomas,    Alex    S.    218. 
Thomas,  I.   L.,  278. 
Thomas,  James  C.,  243,  304. 
Thomas,   J.   W.,  304. 
Thomas,   Lillian    J.    B.,   223. 
Thompson,  R.  W.,  227. 
Thurman,  Mrs.  Lucy,  243. 
Tibbs,  Roy  W.,  220. 
Tidrington,  E.  G.,  304. 
Tolton,   Father   Augustus,  280. 


Tyree,   Evans,  206,  210,  276. 

Vachon,   George   B.,   233. 

Valladelid,  Juaji  de,  239. 

Vass,  G.  W.,  206. 

Vass,   S.   N.,  278. 

Vassa,  Gustavus,    189. 

Velar,   N.   T.,  304. 

Venegar,    F.    T.,   268. 

Vernon,    W.    T.,    206,    209,    265, 

304. 

Vesey,   Denmark,   218,   243. 
Villa,  Panco,  248. 

Walder,  Walter  F.,  237. 
Waldron,  J.  Milton,  210. 
Walker,  237. 

Walker,    Aida    O.,    201,    202,    288. 
Walker,  Mme.  C.  J.,  201,  304. 
Walker,  David,   192,   196. 
Walker,  Edwin  G.,  237. 
Walker,  George,  201. 
Walker,  H.  L.,  227. 
Walker,   John    W.,   261. 
Walker,  Maggie  B.,  206. 
Wall,   Josiah   T.,   243,   251. 
c— Wall,  O.    S.   B.,  243. 


Toussaint,     Francois      Dominique,  Wallace,   A.  G.,  304. 

189,  197,  248.  Wallace,  J.  E.,  265. 

Townsend,   A.   M.,   261,   266.  Wallace,  T.  W.,  278. 

Townsend,  J.   M.,  297.  Wallace,  W.  N.,  227. 

Trotter,  William   H.,   208.  Waller,  O.  M.,  227. 

Trotter,  W.  Monroe,  206,  237.  Walters,  Alexander,  206,  208,  277. 


Index  to  Names 


411 


Walton,  L.  P.,  261. 
Ward,   E.    E.,   304. 
Ward,  S.  R.,  218,  243. 
Ward,  T.  M.  D.,  218. 
Warfield,  W.  A.,  206,  210,  261. 
Waring,  J.  H.  N.,  243. 
Warner,  A.  J.,  277. 
WTarrick,  Meta  Vaux,  220,  287. 
Washington,   Booker  T.,   194,   195, 
196,  197,  198,  199,  200,  201,  210, 
288,  298,  304. 

Washington,  Mrs.  Booker  T.,  202. 
Washington,   J.   W.,  304. 
Washington,    Mrs.    Margaret,    223. 
Washington,  Mrs.  S.  I.  N.,  237. 
Watson,  B.  F.,  277. 
Wayman,   A.    W.,   218. 
Webb,  John  L.,  304. 
Wells,  John  W.,  304. 
Wells,   Nelson,  218. 
Welmon,   Matthew,   304. 

West,    F.   L.,   269. 
West,  W.   B.,  223. 
Westberry,  R.  W.,  304. 
Westons,  243. 

Wharton,  Heber  E.,  243. 

Wheatland,   Marcus    F.,   206. 

Wheaton,  J.  F.,  228. 

Whipper,  William,  192. 

Whitaker,  J.  W.,  227. 

White,   Clarence   C.,  206. 

White,   Fred,   206. 

White,  G.  H.,  206,  210,  251. 

White,  T.  P.,  233. 

White,  W.  J.,  233. 

Whiting,  J.  L.,  269. 

Wier,  Felix,  220. 

Wilder,   J.   R.,   227. 

Wilkinson,    G.    C.,    285. 

Wilkinson,   R.   S.,   268. 

Williams,  Bert,  196,  201,  206,  209, 
288. 

Williams,   C.    P.,  304. 

Williams,  C.  T.,  209. 

Williams,  Charles  W.  M.,  237. 

Williams,  Daniel  H.,  194,  198,  206, 
207,   259,   261. 

Williams,  Mrs.  D.   H.,  223. 

Williams,  E.  C.,  206. 

Williams,   Miss  Emma  Rose,  223. 

Williams,    Mrs.     Fannie    Barrier, 
223. 

Williams,  G.   G.,  304. 


Williams,  George  H.,   198. 

Williams,  G.  H.  C.,  268. 

Williams,  George  Washington,  243. 

Williams,  J.  A.,  304. 

Williams,  J.  B.  L.,  227. 

Williams,  J.  M.  P.,  253. 

Williams,  J.  S.,  304. 

Williams,  P.  B.,  257. 

Williams,  R.   S.,  275. 

Williams,  Mrs.  Sylvanie  F.,  223. 

Williams,  S.  Laing,  304. 

Williams,  W.  T.  B.,  206,  210. 

Willis,  E.  D.,  304. 

Willis,  Joseph,  275. 

Wilson,    Butler   R.,  237. 

Wilson,   Edward,  228. 

Wilson,  James  H.,  261. 

Wilson,  J.  M.,   253. 

Wilson,  T.   J.,  304. 

Wilson,  T.  J.,  Jr.,  304. 

Windham,  B.  L.,  304. 

Windham,  T.  C.,  304. 

Winter,    L.,   305. 

WTolff,  James  G.,  237. 

Wolff,  James   H.,  237. 

Wood,  J.   W.,  278. 

Wood,   N.    B.,   228. 

Wood,  S.  W.,  305. 

Woods,  Granville  T.,  194,  195,  198, 

257. 

Woods,  Lyates,  258. 
Woods,  R.   C.,  266. 
Woodson,   Ann,   233. 
Woodson,  C.  G.,  206,  209,  270. 
Woodson,   Emma  J.,  233. 
Woodson,  J.  W.,  206. 
Work,  Henry,  243. 
Work,  Monroe   N.,  206,  210. 
Wormley,  James,   233,   257. 
Wormley,   Mary,   218,  233. 
Wormley,    William,    218. 
Wragg,   J.   P.,   278. 
Wright,  Elizabeth  E.,  243. 
Wright,  E.  J.,  237. 
Wright,  Herbert  R.,  254. 
Wright,  John  M.,  298,  305. 
Wright,  Mrs.  Minnie  T.,  237. 
Wright,  R.   R.,  206,  218,  268. 
Wright,  R.  R.,  Jr.,  206,  208,  270, 

277. 

Wright,  Theodore  S.,  230. 
Writt,  John  T.,  305. 
Wych,  A.  A.,  261. 


Index  to  Names 

Wyche,  R.  P.,  227.  Young,   Major    Charles,  20G, 

Wynn,  Robert  D.,  279.  247,   248. 

Young,   James    H.,  228. 

Yates,  lola   D.,  237.  Young,  Mrs.  M.  L.,  305. 

Yerb,   William   J.,   254.  Young,  Nathan  B.,  210,  268. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Abantus,   71. 

Abolitionists,    342-344. 

Achievement  of  Negroes,  183-184, 
193. 

Admixture  of  blood.  See  Amal 
gamation. 

"Advance    Guard,"    194. 

Africa,  South,  71-77;  Bastaards, 
74-75;  classes  in,  75-76;  color 
line  in,  75;  illicit  sex  relations, 
75;  intermarriage  in,  75;  mixed- 
blood  people  in,  72;  mixture  of 
races,  71;  population  of,  71; 
race  prejudice  in,  76;  race  sep 
aration  in,  75. 

Agitation,   effect   of,   371-374. 

Agitators,  mulatto,  346,  380-381. 

Amalgamation,  17,  77,  86.  See, 
also,  Intermarriage,  intermixture 
of  races. 

Ambition   of  mulatto,  315-318. 

America,  South,  33-51,  88. 

American    Indians.      See    Indians. 

Anglo-Indians.     See   Eurasians. 

Antipathy,  race,  25,  317-319.  See, 
also,  Race  prejudice. 

Anti-slavery    propaganda,   342. 

Apache,  78. 

Arabs,  half-caste,  28. 

Arawak    Indians,   65. 

Art,  Negro  in,  286-292. 

Assimilation   in   ancient  times,  26. 

Attitude;  of  Northern  mulattoes, 
368-374;  of  races  in  Spanish 
America,  40-41;  toward  first 
American  Negroes,  166-168. 

Auxiliary   wives,   22. 

Backward   race,   definition   of,   18. 
Banks,   Negro,   295-297,  307. 
Bastaards,  71-75. 

Biography  of  Negroes,  221-231, 
237-245. 


Bi-racial,  355,  358-360,  373-374. 
Boston   Negroes,  233-237. 
Brazil,  27,  88. 
Brazilian     Negro,     Roosevelt     on, 

323-324. 

Business,   Negro  in,  293-307. 
Business  League,  Negro,  289,  298- 

306,  307. 

Cannibalism,  63. 

Cascos,  13. 

Caste,  basis  for,  19;  accommoda 
tion  to,  360,  371;  in  primitive 
society,  21. 

Cheroke'e,  85. 

Children,  treatment  of  half-caste, 
95-96. 

Civilized   Tribes,   81,  82,  84. 

Class  distinctions;  in  Cuba,  59; 
in  Jamaica,  68;  in  Philippine 
Islands,  52-53;  in  Spain,  24;  in 
Spanish  America,  44-49;  South 
Africa,  73. 

Classes,  influence  of,  on  race  inter 
mixture,  90-92. 

Color  line;  among  American  In 
dians,  85;  among  Negroes,  177- 
179;  in  Brazil,  36-37;  in  Cuba, 
57;  in  Haiti,  63;  in  Jamaica,  67; 
in  South  Africa,  75;  in  Spanish 
America,  47. 

Color  prejudice;  in  Spanish  Am 
erica,  50;  in  Cuba,  60.  See, 
also,  Race  prejudice. 

Coloured,    defined,    14. 

Coloured  peoples,  27;  of  Jamaica, 
316;  of  South  Africa,  27. 

Comanche,  78. 

Communication,  eifect  on  race  in 
termixture,  16. 

Competition,  as  affecting  race 
prejudice,  101,  338. 

Concubinage,  28-29;    139-144;  378. 


413 


414 


General  Index 


Croatans,  81,  85. 

Cuba,   57-60;    color   inferiority   in, 
325-326;   mulatto  in,  326. 

Dance,  60,  88;  orgiastic,  62. 
Dentistry,  Negro  in,  262-263,  291. 
Determination  of  racial  type,  327. 
Differentiation  among  slaves,  169- 

172. 

Disorganization  in   South,  349. 
Distribution     of     mulattoes,     113, 

122-124. 

Divide  and  Rule,  policy  of,  333. 
Douglass,  Frederick,  317. 

Early  American  Negroes,  190-192. 

Educated  classes,  395. 

Education    of    Negro,    339,    350; 

Woodson's,  231-233. 
Eminent    Negroes,    197-199. 
Enfranchisement  of  Negroes,  350. 
Escapement    from    the    race,    396. 
Eskimo  half-castes,  27,  31-32,  316. 
Ethnological  distinctions,  47. 
Eurasians,  26-31,  316. 
Exclusion    policy,   334-335. 
Exogamy,   21. 

Famous    colored    women,    201-202. 
Famous   Negroes,   199-201. 
Fertility   of   mixed   marriages,   83. 
Foremost    men    of   the    race,    207- 

210. 
Formation  of  primitive   state,  97- 

98. 

Free  mulattoes,   176-177. 
Free  Negroes,  112-113. 
Freedman's    Bureau,    347. 
French-Canadians,    77. 

Greeks,  22. 

Greenland,  31,  88. 

Griffe,  12. 

Griquas.     See   Bastaards. 

Haiti,  61-65;  civilization  of,  61-62; 
classes  in,  64;  color  line  in,  63; 
dress,  65;  education  in,  63-65; 
marriage  in,  62-64;  political  con 
ditions,  62;  population  of,  63; 
presidents  of,  65;  race  hatred 
in,  65;  religion  in,  62-63. 


Half-breed;  as  a  separate  caste, 
328-331;  illegitimate  origin  of, 
88;  increase  in  numbers,  93-94; 
psychology  of,  19;  treatment  of 
children,  95-96.  See,  also. 
Eurasians. 

Hindu.     See  Eurasians. 

Histories  of  the  race,  216-220. 

Hopi  Indians,  80,  81. 

Hybrid,   variability    of,    12. 

Hybridization,   28. 

Ideals  of  the  Negro,   180-181. 

Illicit  sex  relations,  145-155,  378. 
classes  involved,  145-155;  during 
colonial  times,  144-155;  effect  of 
freedom  on,  160-161;  effect  of 
slavery  on,  158-160;  indentured 
servants,  146-150;  white  women 
and  Indians,  155;  white  women 
and  Negroes,  153-155;  slave 
owners  and  slaves,  145-146. 

Immigrants  in  Spanish  America, 
38. 

Indentured   servants,    146-150. 

India,  88. 

Indians,  77-85;  as  slaves,  82;  white 
crosses,  28;  fertility  of,  83;  half- 
breed,  78-85,  317;  Hopi,  81-82; 
intermixture,  77-79;  Iroquois, 
77-78;  Navajo,  81;  Negro  inter 
mixture,  82-83;  Oklahoma,  81; 
Osage,  85;  race  problem  among, 
84-85;  St.  Regis,  81;  Wyan- 
dots,  84. 

Inquisition,    25. 

Industrial  education,  381. 

Intermarriage,  69,  94-95,  127-139, 
316,  378;  classes  involved,  130- 
131;  136-137;  in  Brazil,  36;  in 
Greenland,  32;  in  South  Africa, 
75;  in  Spain,  24;  in  Spanish 
America,  48-50;  laws  concerning, 
128-130,  134;  Negro  and  Indian, 
155-158. 

Intermixture  of  races,  15-16,  393- 
394;  among  American  Indians, 
78-79 ;  conditions  determining, 
88-93;  effect  of,  on  civilization, 
17;  in  ancient  world,  22-23;  in 
Brazil,  33-38;  in  Cuba,  57-60; 
in  Greenland,  31-33;  in  Haiti, 
61-65;  in  India,  27-31;  in 


General  Index 


415 


Jamaica,  65-71;  in  North  Am 
erican  Indian  group,  77-85;  in 
Philippines,  51-54;  in  primitive 
society,  21-22;  in  Spain,  23-26; 
in  Spanish  America,  38-51;  in 
South  Africa,  71-77;  in  West 
Indies,  55-71;  when  a  problem, 
17-18. 

Inventors,  Negro,  256-259,  291. 

Iroquois,   77-78. 

Islam,  policy  of,  24. 

Isolation,  359,  383,  390-391. 

Jamaica,  65-71;  classes,  66;  edu 
cation,  67;  population,  66;  rela 
tion  of  sexes,  67;  separation  of 
colors,  67-68;  Spanish  occupancy 
of,  65. 

Johnson,  Jack,  317. 

Journalism,  Negro  in,  286,  291. 

Kafirs,   73. 

Key  to   race   problem,   86-104. 

Law,   Negro  in,  263-264,  291. 
Leadership,    Negro,    364,    366-367, 

395. 
Literature,  Negro  in,  282-286,  291; 

of  Negroes,  388. 
L'Ouverture.     See  Toussaint. 

Mango,  13. 

Manitoba,    mixed-bloods    in,    77. 

Manumission,    339. 

Marabon,   12. 

Meamelouc,   12. 

Medicine,   Negro   in,   259-263,   291. 

Mestizo,   27,   33;    Chinese,    27,    51- 

54,     in     Spanish     America,    40; 

social    position    of,    in    Spanish 

America,   46-49;   in   Mexico,  44; 

Spanish,  27,  51-52. 
Metif,  12. 
Metis,  27,  33-38,  316-317;  advance 

of,    320-323;    characteristics    of, 

34-35. 

Mexico,   races   in,  43-44. 
Middle-class,  growth  of,  358. 
Migrations,  14-15. 
Ministry,  Negroes  in,  274-282,  291. 
Miscegenation,  22;  in   Brazil,  33; 


in  Greenland,  31-33;  in  India,  28. 
See,  also,  Intermarriage.  Amal 
gamation.  Intermixture  of 
races. 

Mixed-blood  caste,  376. 

Mixed-blood  race.  See  Half- 
breed. 

Mixed-bloods  as  a  cohesive  force, 
22. 

Mixed  marriages.  See  Intermar 
riage. 

Mixture  of  blood,  22,  375. 

Mongrel   type,   28. 

Moriscos,   24. 

Mulattoes;  as  leaders,  341,  360- 
364;  caste,  316;  children  of 
white  women,  175-176;  definition 
of,  11-14;  Hall,  110;  improve 
ment  of,  396-397;  increase  of, 
118-122;  key  to  race  problem, 
86-104;  militant,  371;  number 
of,  116-118;  pride  in  color,  395- 
396;  problem  of,  19;  sentiments 
of,  341,  343;  societies,  340;  su 
periority  of,  339,  395. 

Music,  Negro  in,  289-291. 

Musical  tradition,  388-389. 

Mustifee,    13. 

Mustifino,  13. 

Natal.     See  South  Africa. 

National  Association  for  the  Ad 
vancement  of  the  Colored 
People,  370. 

Nationalities,    composition    of,    16. 

Nationality;  effect  of  ,  on  economic 
competition,  392-393;  effect  of, 
on  education,  391-392;  effect  of, 
on  intermixture  of  races,  393; 
effect  of,  on  isolation,  390-391; 
effect  of,  on  race  friction,  394; 
tendency  toward,  383;  sentiment 
of,  in  Roman  colonies,  23. 

Native  policy  in  ancient  times, 
26-27. 

Navajo,  81. 

Negro   aristocracy,   389-390. 

Negro;  Brazilian,  321;  business 
league,  298-305;  disappearance 
of,  in  Brazil,  38;  Indian  inter 
mixture,  82;  in  history,  188-189;' 
middle  class,  353-359;  politicians, 
347-348. 


416 


General  Index 


Obstacles   to   race   solidarity,  382- 

383. 

Occupational    differentiation,    339. 
Octoroon,    13. 
Oklahoma,    81. 

Opportunities  of  mulattoes,  378. 
Origin  of  mixed-bloods,  88,  376. 
Osage,  85. 

Persistence  of  negroid  character 
istics,  105. 

Philippine   Islands,   51-54. 

Phoenicians,   22. 

Physical  appearance,  as  basis  for 
class  distinctions,  18-19. 

Politicians,   Negro,   346-347. 

Politics,  Negro  in,  249-256,  291. 

Polygamy,  62,  64. 

Porto    Rico,   56. 

Portuguese,  88;  in  Brazil,  33ff.; 
in  India,  28. 

Prestige   of  mulattoes,  363. 

Presuppositions,   375-376. 

Professional   classes,   395. 

Property-owning  class,  395. 

Psychology  of  mixed-bloods,  19, 
102-103. 

Quadroon,  13. 
Quarteron,    12. 

Race;  competition,  392-393;  de 
fined,  14;  friction,  76,  394;  har 
mony,  100;  hatred,  48,  65;  inter 
mixture  (see  Intermixture  of 
races);  pride,  21;  repugnance, 
28;  separation,  75,  385-386. 

Race  prejudice,  70;  basis  for,  18; 
as  affected  by  numbers,  99-100; 
growth  of,  in  American  colonies, 
167-168;  in  Philippines,  53;  in 
South  Africa,  76. 

Race  problem,  85;  denned,  18-19; 
in  Jamaica,  70;  in  Spain,  24. 

Race  solidarity,  absence  of,  in 
North,  366-368;  consequences  of, 
390ff.  See,  also,  Nationality. 

Races  and  classes  in  Spanish  Am 
erica,  40. 

Races,  relative  tendency  toward 
intermixture,  88-90. 

Races;  biological  effect  of  cross 


ing,     13;      distribution     of,     in 

Spanish    America,    42-43. 
Reconstruction  policy,  347. 
Rizal,  53. 
Role    of    mulatto,     104,     380-38  , 

338ff.,  377,  315ff.,  320. 
Romans,     mixture     with     subject 

peoples,  23. 

Sacrata,    12. 

St.  Regis,  81. 

Sambo,  13. 

Sang-mele,  12. 

Santo  Domingo,  56. 

Segregation,  355 ff.,  384-385. 

Self-interest,  387-388. 

Self-respect,  387. 

Separation  of  colors  in  Jamaica, 
68. 

Sexual  selection,  38. 

Slave  traffic,   106-107. 

Slavery;  domestic,  27;  effect  on 
race  intermixture,  92-94;  in 
Cuba,  57;  in  ancient  times,  27; 
in  West  Indies,  55ff.;  of  Indians 
in  Spanish  America,  39. 

Slaves;  classes  among,  172-173; 
distribution  of,  108. 

Snake  worship,  63. 

Social;  classes  in  Cuba,  58-59;  dis 
tinction  in  Jamaica,  68;  equal 
ity,  319-320,  349;  separation, 
See  Color  line. 

Soldiers,   Negro,  246-249,  291. 

Southern  mulatto  leaders,  361  ff. 

Southern  policy,  353ff. 

Spain;  mixture  of  races  in,  23; 
race  problem  in,  24-25. 

Spanish  America,  33 ff. 

Spanish   half-breeds,  317. 

Statistics   of  mulattoes,   106. 

Status  of  mixed-bloods,  96,  335- 
336;  as  affected  by  physical  ap 
pearance,  98;  as  affected  by  cul 
tural  differences  of  races,  99;  as 
slaves,  174-177;  in  Brazil,  33- 
38;  in  Cuba,  325-326;  in  India, 
316,  328-330;  in  Greenland,  316; 
in  Spanish  America,  326-327;  in 
Jamaica,  331-333. 

Status  of  Negroes  in  North,  364ff. 

Status  of  slaves,  167-168. 

Students,  Negro,  270-274, 


General  Index 


417 


Superior   mulattoes,   per    cent   of, 

311-314. 
Superiority  of  mulattoes,  101-102, 

181,  187-188,  379. 

"Talented    Tenth,"    196-197. 
Teachers,  Negro,  264-274,  291. 
Toussaint,  64. 
Tradition   of   mulatto   superiority, 

378-379. 
Tuskegee.    See  Southern  Policy. 

"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  344. 

Variability    of    mixed-bloods,    83- 

84. 


Voluntary  segregation,  386-387. 
Voodooism,  62. 

Waltz.    See  Dance. 

Washington,  policy  of.  See  South 
ern  policy. 

West  Indies,  55-71,  88. 

"Whites  by  Law,"  27. 

"Who's  Who  in  Colored  America," 
202-206. 

Women,  influence  of,  on  race  in 
termixture,  91-92. 

Wyandots,  84. 

Zambos,  33. 


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